<text>Mass for Septuagesima Sunday,3,15MIDDLE AGES (400-1400),Medieval Intro Essay,Medieval Geography,Medieval Economy,Medieval Population,Medieval castle,28745Medieval town in Italy,28746Medieval Society,Medieval Astrology: The Influence of Venus,14678Medieval boating and fishing,14696Medieval Politics,Medieval Warfare,Medieval jousting,14718Medieval Foreign Relations,Medieval Culture,Medieval Religion/Philosophy Essay,Medieval Science & Technology Profiles,Male anatomy as governed by the 12 constellations,41331Monte Cassino Abbey - founded in 529,14671Maya settlement,28751Maya city of Tikal,28741Maya codex,29908Mohammed,30665Mamurize Castle in Anamur - Turkey,14665Main gate to the city in Caesarea - Palestine,14667Madonna and Child with the Baptist and Saint Peter,56Magna Carta,14623Magna Carta - detail,14624Mont St. Michel - Normandy,14745Marco Polo,15602Marco Polo before Kublai Khan,44056Madonna and Child,52Madonna and Child - detail,54Madonna and Child with Saint Mary Magdalene and Saint Catherine,36Madonna and Child,52Madonna and Child - detail,54Mass for Septuagesima Sunday,3,3Motet: Ave Maria - Fons letitie on Leonin's clausula on latus,7,7MACHAUT - Quant Theseus—Ne quier veoir,27,29MACHAUT - Mass: Agnus Dei,30,32MONIOT D'ARRAS - Ce fut en mai,5,5MACHAUT - Hareu! hareu! le feu—Helas! ou sera pris confors—Obediens,6,6</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>59</id>
<text>Justinian I,11804Jewelry from a Frankish cemetery,14606Joan of Arc and the dauphin,16318Joan of Arc,16319Joan of Arc by Jean Auguste Ingres,14638John Ball preaching during the Peasants' Revolt in 1381,14705</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>67</id>
<text>Roman triumphal procession,11807Romans forcing Germans to execute their people,11810Roman troops in capture of Jerusalem,11812Rise of Islam,Romanesque (1000-1150),Romanesque Intro Essay,Romanesque Art Essay,Romanesque Music Essay,Romanesque Essays,Romanesque Buildings,Romanesque arch in Durham Cathedral,14731Romanesque windows of Durham Cathedral,14732Romanesque tympanum at Moissac - France,14722Romanesque capital from Autun Cathedral,14724Romanesque Grid,Richard II gives Aquitane to John of Gaunt,14633RUGEN - We ich han gedacht,35,35</text>
<text>German warrior on horseback,11809Gold belt buckle of an Anglo-Saxon king,14607Gold and enamel reliquary cross,14647Great Gothic Buildings,Gargoyle on the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris,14742Gothic Cathedral at Milan,14749Genghis Khan - portrait,15902Genghis Khan,15903Giant medieval crossbow,30675Giotto,nameGiotto,nameGeoffrey Chaucer,14687GREGORIAN CHANT - Gradual: Haec dies,1,1</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>68</id>
<text>Silver coin commemorating the Jewish revolt in Palestine,11811St. Bernard of Clairvaux,14674St. Francis of Assisi - stained glass,14675St. Augustine,16315Saint Thomas Aquinas,16317St. Louis buries bones of the crusaders - illuminated manuscript,14626Stained glass window - Cologne,28753Stained glass window - Notre Dame,28754Stained glass window - Chartres,28755St. Louis buries bones of the crusaders - illuminated manuscript,14626Simone Martini,nameSACHS - Nachdem David war redlich,36,36Senescente mundano filio,46,46,SOLAGE - Fumeux fume,33,33Salve sancta parens,35,35</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>69</id>
<text>The execution of Lollards,14682The Calling of the Apostles Peter and Andrew,30The crest of the cooper's guild - c. 1450,14697The Mouth of Hell - illuminated manuscript,14679The hierarchy of medieval society: monk - knight - peasant,14690The seige of a fortress - c. 1100,14710The "Franks' Casket",14605Theodoric exiles Boethius from Rome - woodcut,14670Two men compounding remedies,41358The Hotel Dieu - a medieval hospital in Paris,41343The plan of Monte Cassino Abbey,14672Theodoric exiles Boethius from Rome - woodcut,14670The Arch of Constantine in Rome,11802Tomb of Theodoric the Great in Ravenna Italy,11803The Great Mosque at Mecca,14650The Mosque of Medina in Saudia Arabia,14651The Battle of Poitiers - 732,14653The Lions Court of the Alhambra in Granada - Spain,14654The Alcazar in Segovia - Spain,14656The Feudal System,The Palace Chapel of Charlemagne - Aachen,14612The Bayeux Tapestry - the Norman Conquest of England,14616The Bayeux Tapestry - Norman cavalry,14617The Bayeux Tapestry - the Battle of Hastings,14618The Tower of London,14619The Tower of London in the 18th century,49687The Battle of Hastings - 1066,30667The Bayeux Tapestry - the Norman Conquest of England,14616The Bayeux Tapestry - Norman cavalry,14617The Bayeux Tapestry - the Battle of Hastings,14618Tower of London,28762The Baptistry - Florence Cathedral,14728The Early Crusades,The death of Godfrey of Bouillon - illuminated manuscript,14660The Church of the Holy Sepulchre - Jerusalem,14663The Krak (castle) des Chevaliers,14664The Later Crusades,Tomb of Henry II,14620The Gothic Mind,The Parliamentary Idea,The Magna Carta signed by King John,30670The Parliament of Edward I,14627The tympanum - Notre Dame de Chartres,14736The facade of Reims Cathedral,14738The Rose Window - Notre Dame in Paris,14740The Entombment of Jesus - bas-relief - Notre Dame in Paris,14741The Fibonacci Series,The murder of Thomas Becket,14621The Angel of the Annunciation,38The Plague of Florence,30206The Plague of Milan,30230The Battle of Poitiers - 1356,14631The Papal Palace at Avignon - France,14628The execution of Richard II's Councillors - 1388,14634Tu patris sempitemus et filius,42,44</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>53</id>
<text>Duccio di Buoninsegna,nameDestroying the remains of John Wycliffe,14681Digging up herbs in the 12th century,41356Decorative astrological signs - University of Salamanca ,41433Detail of the columns of the Alhambra,14655Decorated facade - Orvieto Cathedral,14743Dante's Inferno from a Florentine engraving,14689Dante,16342DIA - A chantar m'er de so queu no volria,33,33</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>63</id>
<text>Nativity with the Prophets Ezekiel and Isaiah,32Nativity with the Prophets Ezekiel and Isaiah - detail,34Nave of Durham Cathedral,14730Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris - c. 1635,49691Norton Anthology: Vol.I-CD1Norton Anthology: Vol.I-CD2Norton Scores: Vol.1-CD1NOTRE DAME SCHOOL - Organum: Haec dies (excerpt),2,3Norton Scores: Supp. set-CD1</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>72</id>
<text>WR Medieval Intro,William the Conqueror,15901Wells Cathedral - England,14746</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>107</id>
<text>13th century map of the world,14657"Saint John Dictating to the Venerable Bede" Anonymous,2712"Saint Francis Receiving the Stigmata" by Veneziano,132"Head of Saint Francis" by Reni,2679"Saint Jerome Reading" by Bellini,343"Landscape with the Penitance of Saint Jerome" by Bruegal,2779"Saint Jerome" by El Greco,527"Saint Jerome in the Wilderness" by Veronese,409"Saint Jerome in the Wilderness" by Cima da Conegliano,315"Saint Jerome in the Desert" by Desiderio da Settignano,2370"Saint Jerome and the Angel" by Vouet,971"Saint Jerome" by Francesco di Giorgio,2394"Saint Jerome with Saint Paula and Saint Eustochim" by Zurbaran,543"Saint Jerome in Penitence" by Campagnola,2637"St. Thomas Aquinas" by Fra Angelico,14676"The Life of Saint Ignatius Loyola" by Assam,2748"Carpet page" from the Lindisfarne Gospels,1460912th century Romanesque tympanum at Autun - France,14723"Madonna in Maesto" by Giotto de Bondone,14753"Madonna and Child" by Giotto,14754"The Angel of the Annunciation" by Simone Martini,14752100 Years War,"Madonna in Maesto" by Giotto de Bondone,14753"Madonna and Child" by Giotto,14754</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>65</id>
<text>Peasant harvesting grain in the 13th century,46823Plowing,14700Punishment of the Wrathful in Hell,14680Post Roman Pre-Gregorian (400-600),Post Roman Intro Essay,Post Roman Art Essay,Post Roman Music Essay,Post Roman Essays,Post Roman Grid,Pope Gregory I,14673Pope Gregory I,14673Pilgrims journey to Jerusalem - illuminated manuscript,14662Parliament of Edward I,30682Portal statues - Notre Dame de Chartres,14737Portals of the Cathedral of St. Etienne in Bourges - France,14739Pope Innocent III - marble bas-relief,14625Pietro Lorenzetti,namePlague victim with physicians - 15th century,41382Plague cart carrying away the dead and inflicted in Rome - 1657,41384Physician in costume to protect himself from the plague,41386Philip the Good - Duke of Burgundy,14639Proto Humanism,Pope John XXII,14629PEROTIN - Sedurunt,11,13Pucelete—Je lanquis—Domino,16,16</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>57</id>
<text>Harrowing,14701Hagia Sophia - interior view,14642Hagia Sophia - exterior view,14643HALLE - Jeu de Robins et de Marion: Robins m'aime,34,34</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>58</id>
<text>Interior of castle,28747Ivory figure of a consul,14603Istampita Palamento,37,41</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>55</id>
<text>Flagellants,14677Facade of Cathedral of Notre-Dame-la-Grande in Poitiers - France,14726Frederick Barbarossa embarking on the Second Crusade - 1147,14661Fan vaulting - Wells Cathedral,14748Fulget coelestis curia,34,34</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>61</id>
<text>Life on a medieval manor,14691Lancelot and the Lady of Shallot by Dante Gabriel Rosetti,14669Lothair I - King of Germany,14614Late Gothic (1300-1400),Late Gothic Intro Essay,Late Gothic Art Essay,Late Gothic Music Essay,Late Gothic Essays,London Bills of Mortality - 1664-1665,41385Late Gothic Grid,LANDINI - Non avra ma' pieta,24,26</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>52</id>
<text>Compounding herbs - 12th century,41357Celtic Beginnings,Clovis - king of the Franks,14604Celtic & Gregorian (600-800),Celtic Intro Essay,Celtic Art Essay,Celtic Music Essay,Celtic Essays,Celtic Contributions,Chant,Celtic Grid,Carolingian & Ottonian (800-1000),Carolingian Intro Essay,Carolingian Art Essay,Carolingian Music Essay,Carolingian Essays,Charlemagne,Charlemagne - portrait,15900Charlemagne by Albrecht Durer,14610Carolingian Grid,Central tower of Durham Cathedral,14729Church of St. Sernin in Toulouse - France,14725Church of San Millan in Castile - Spain,14727Crusaders beseige a castle,14659Crusader fortifications in Caesarea - Palestine,14666Cambridge University,29930Cathedral of Notre Dame de Chartres,14735Cross arches - Wells Cathedral,14747Coronation of Richard I,14622Charles V - the King of France and his council,14632</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>54</id>
<text>End of the Roman Empire,Emperor Constantine in battle,15899Emperor Constantine,11801Early Gothic (1150-1300),Early Gothic Intro Essay,Early Gothic Art Essay,Early Gothic Music Essay,Early Gothic Essays,Exterior details of the Milan Cathedral,14750Early Gothic Grid,Execution of men accused of spreading the plague - 1630,41379Execution of men accused of spreading the plague - detail,41380English and French Kings in Council - the 100 Years' War,14636Electors of the Holy Roman Empire - illuminated manuscript,14630Excerpt from Chaucer's Canterbury Tales - the first edition,14688EURIPIDES - Orestes - Stasimon chorus,1,1Epitaph of Seikilos,2,2e. Motet: Salve - salus hominum—Oradians stella—nostrum,5,5</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>60</id>
<text>King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table,14668King John signing the Magna Carta,30669</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>64</id>
<text>Otto I - ivory panel,14615Office of Second Vespers - Nativity of Our Lord,16,29</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>51</id>
<text>Byzantium,Byzantine mosaic - St. George's Church in Salonika - Greece,14644Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII,14645Byzantine cross,14646Byzantine icon of St. John Chrysostom,14648Byzantine tryptych of the Virgin and Child with two saints,14649Battle of the Crusades,30668Black Death,b. LEONIN Organum duplum - Alleluia Pascha no-,1,4b. continued - LEONIN - immola-,6,6b. LEONIN - Christus Alleluia,8,10BOLOGNA - Fenice fu,23,23</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>71</id>
<text>Vikings,Viking ship,28920Virgin and Child: facade sculpture - Orvieto Cathedral,14744Victimae paschali laudes,30,30VENTADORN - Can vei la lauzeta mover,32,32VITRY - Garrit Gallus—In nova fert—Neuma,17,22</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>70</id>
<text>University of Paris - 15th century,29918</text>
</content>
<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>66</id>
<text>Quem quaeritis in praesepe,31,31</text>
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<name>Externals</name>
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(400-1400)|ProclusText,Pseudo-Dionysius|127227,82197|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Pseudo-DionysiusText,Phillippe de Vitry |41595,71707|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Phillip de VitryText,Philosophical/Theological Summary|126262,25720|Culture® OverView|Tools for Study — Philosophical/Theological Overview,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Post Roman Religion/Philosophy|145913,136070|Middle Ages (400-1400)|General Essay,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Philosophical/Theological Summary|106990,25720|Culture® OverView|Tools for Study — Philosophical/Theological Overview,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Philosophical/Theological Summary|96791,25720|Culture® OverView|Tools for Study — Philosophical/Theological Overview,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Philosophical/Theological Summary|116079,25720|Culture® OverView|Tools for Study — Philosophical/Theological Overview,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Philosophical/Theological Summary|130658,25720|Culture® OverView|Tools for Study — Philosophical/Theological Overview,No Link Notes 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<text>TEXT,Hagia Sophia|54557,46667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Hagia SophiaTEXT,Hagia Sophia|12781,46667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Hagia SophiaTEXT,Habsburgs|53816,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|HabsburgsTEXT,Habsburgs|59009,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|HabsburgsTEXT,Habsburgs|19085,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|HabsburgsTEXT,Henry III|77399,66234|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Henry IIITEXT,Heidegger|145348,285169|20th Century (1912-1991)|Martin HeideggerTEXT,Heidegger|108043,285169|20th Century (1912-1991)|Martin HeideggerTEXT,Heidegger|109276,285169|20th Century (1912-1991)|Martin HeideggerTEXT,Heidegger|110335,285169|20th Century (1912-1991)|Martin HeideggerTEXT,Heidegger|111338,285169|20th Century (1912-1991)|Martin HeideggerTEXT,Heidegger|112285,285169|20th Century (1912-1991)|Martin HeideggerTEXT,Heidegger|113277,285169|20th Century (1912-1991)|Martin HeideggerTEXT,Herzen|145348,151128|Romantic (1803-1912)|Alexander Herzen (1812-1870)TEXT,Hegel|145123,158193|Romantic (1803-1912)|Georg HegelTEXT,Hegel|107988,158193|Romantic (1803-1912)|Georg HegelTEXT,Hegel|108820,158193|Romantic (1803-1912)|Georg HegelTEXT,Hegel|109897,158193|Romantic (1803-1912)|Georg HegelTEXT,Hegel|110890,158193|Romantic (1803-1912)|Georg HegelTEXT,Hegel|112118,158193|Romantic (1803-1912)|Georg HegelTEXT,Hegel|112977,158193|Romantic (1803-1912)|Georg HegelTEXT,Hobbes|145123,62750|Baroque (1600-1750)|Thomas HobbesTEXT,Hobbes|107988,62750|Baroque (1600-1750)|Thomas HobbesTEXT,Hobbes|108820,62750|Baroque (1600-1750)|Thomas HobbesTEXT,Hobbes|109897,62750|Baroque (1600-1750)|Thomas HobbesTEXT,Hobbes|110890,62750|Baroque (1600-1750)|Thomas HobbesTEXT,Hobbes|112118,62750|Baroque (1600-1750)|Thomas HobbesTEXT,Hobbes|112977,62750|Baroque (1600-1750)|Thomas HobbesTEXT,Hume|145123,76792|Baroque (1600-1750)|David HumeTEXT,Hume|107988,76792|Baroque (1600-1750)|David HumeTEXT,Hume|108820,76792|Baroque (1600-1750)|David HumeTEXT,Hume|109897,76792|Baroque (1600-1750)|David HumeTEXT,Hume|110890,76792|Baroque (1600-1750)|David HumeTEXT,Hume|134916,76792|Baroque (1600-1750)|David HumeTEXT,Hume|112118,76792|Baroque (1600-1750)|David HumeTEXT,Hume|112977,76792|Baroque (1600-1750)|David HumeTEXT,HUMANISM|107988,64844|Renaissance (1400-1600)|HUMANISMTEXT,HUMANISM|108820,64844|Renaissance (1400-1600)|HUMANISMTEXT,HUMANISM|109897,64844|Renaissance (1400-1600)|HUMANISMTEXT,HUMANISM|110890,64844|Renaissance (1400-1600)|HUMANISMTEXT,HUMANISM|112118,64844|Renaissance (1400-1600)|HUMANISMTEXT,Humanism|70108,64844|Renaissance (1400-1600)|HUMANISMTEXT,HUMANISM|112977,64844|Renaissance (1400-1600)|HUMANISMTEXT,Humanism|49666,64844|Renaissance (1400-1600)|HUMANISMTEXT,HUMANISM|73993,64844|Renaissance (1400-1600)|HUMANISMTEXT,Humanism|74528,64844|Renaissance (1400-1600)|HUMANISMTEXT,humanism|74987,64844|Renaissance (1400-1600)|HUMANISMTEXT,humanism|39229,64844|Renaissance (1400-1600)|HUMANISMTEXT,Hagia Sophia|106702,106702|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Hagia SophiaTEXT,Hagia Sophia|54557,106702|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Hagia SophiaTEXT,Hagia Sophia|12781,106702|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Hagia SophiaTEXT,Hagia Sophia|94710,106702|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Hagia SophiaTEXT,Hagia Sophia|46667,106702|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Hagia SophiaText,Hugh of St. Victor|110797,133715|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Hugh of St. VictorTEXT,Henry VIII|145123,39022|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Henry VIIITEXT,Henry VIII|107988,39022|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Henry VIIITEXT,Henry VIII|108820,39022|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Henry VIIITEXT,Henry VIII|109897,39022|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Henry VIIITEXT,Henry VIII|110890,39022|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Henry VIIITEXT,Henry VIII|112118,39022|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Henry VIIITEXT,Henry VIII|112977,39022|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Henry VIIITEXT,HABSBURG|30258,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The HabsburgsTEXT,HABSBURG|30258,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The HabsburgsTEXT,HABSBURG|30258,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The HabsburgsTEXT,HABSBURG|30258,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The HabsburgsTEXT,Henry IV|131545,66714|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Henry IVTEXT,Henry IV|23773,66714|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Henry IVTEXT,Henry IV|79745,66714|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Henry IVText,Historical Overview of Philosophical and Religious Though|126262Text,Hereford Cathedral|39583,103709|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Hereford CathedralText,Historical Overview of Philosophical and Religious Thought|126262Text,Holy Orders|126262,147940|Middle Ages (400-1400)|HOLY ORDERSText,Herophilus|153262,15678|Greece|HerophilusText,Holy Roman Empire|143535,77048|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Holy Roman EmpireText,Hereford|67477,103709|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Hereford CathedralText,Henry VI|73363,67266|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Henry VIText,Holy Roman Emperor|58823,60938|Middle Ages (400-1400)|CharlemagneText,high clerestory|14879Text,Holy Roman Empire|60926,53816|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Holy Roman EmpireText,Henry IV|131165,23773|Middle Ages (400-1400)Text,Hugh St. Victor|119564,133715|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Hugh of St. VictorText,Honore|70585,97914|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Master HonoreText,Halley|28922,77594|Baroque (1600-1750)|Edmond HalleyText,Henry II|77399,29889|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Henry IIText,Henry II|30143,29889|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Henry IIText,Henry II|30480,29889|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Henry IIText,Henry II|135300,29889|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Henry IIText,Henry II|62044,29889|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Henry II</text>
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<text>TEXT,End of the Roman Empire|76704TEXT,End of the Roman Empire|50953TEXT,Edward the Confessor|23111,61647|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Edward the ConfessorTEXT,Ely Cathedral|25893,63655|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Ely CathedralTEXT,Eleanor of Aquitaine|29889,30143|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Eleanor of AquitaineTEXT,Edward III|3589,73033|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Edward IIITEXT,Engels|108043,159884|Romantic (1803-1912)|Friedrich EngelsTEXT,Engels|109276,159884|Romantic (1803-1912)|Friedrich EngelsTEXT,Engels|110335,159884|Romantic (1803-1912)|Friedrich EngelsTEXT,Engels|111338,159884|Romantic (1803-1912)|Friedrich EngelsTEXT,Engels|112285,159884|Romantic (1803-1912)|Friedrich EngelsTEXT,Engels|113277,159884|Romantic (1803-1912)|Friedrich EngelsTEXT,Erasmus|145123,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus)TEXT,EPICUREANISM|144698,11450|Rome|EPICUREANISMTEXT,EPICUREANISM|107572,11450|Rome|EPICUREANISMTEXT,EPICUREANISM|108627,11450|Rome|EPICUREANISMTEXT,EPICUREANISM|109749,11450|Rome|EPICUREANISMTEXT,EPICUREANISM|110797,11450|Rome|EPICUREANISMTEXT,EPICUREANISM|111816,11450|Rome|EPICUREANISMTEXT,EPICUREANISM|112723,11450|Rome|EPICUREANISMTEXT,Epicurus|144698,29054|Greece|EpicurusTEXT,Epicurus|107572,29054|Greece|EpicurusTEXT,Epicurus|108627,29054|Greece|EpicurusTEXT,Epicurus|109749,29054|Greece|EpicurusTEXT,Epicurus|110797,29054|Greece|EpicurusTEXT,Epicurus|111816,29054|Greece|EpicurusTEXT,Epicurus|112723,29054|Greece|EpicurusTEXT,Epicurus|115271,29054|Greece|EpicurusTEXT,Epictetus|144698,31457|Rome|EpictetusTEXT,Epictetus|107572,31457|Rome|EpictetusTEXT,Epictetus|108627,31457|Rome|EpictetusTEXT,Epictetus|109749,31457|Rome|EpictetusTEXT,Epictetus|110797,31457|Rome|EpictetusTEXT,Epictetus|111816,31457|Rome|EpictetusTEXT,Epictetus|112723,31457|Rome|EpictetusTEXT,Elizabeth I|79745,40407|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Elizabeth IText,Exeter Cathedral|39583,103709|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Exeter CathedralText,English scholastic philosopher|138809,118555|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Roger BaconText,Emperor Theodoric|138339,76247|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Ostrogoth King TheodoricText,Early Gothic Religion & Philosophy|145913Text,Exeter|67477,103709|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Exeter CathedralText,Edward III|73033,48448|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Edward IIIText,Eusebius|3844,35997|Rome|Eusebius of CaesareaText,EAST/WEST SPLIT IN 1054|24341Text,Ely Cathedral|98823,94989|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Ely CathedralText,Edward I|99590,77667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Edward IText,Edward III|80122,73033|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Edward IIIText,Ely Cathedral|39583,94989|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Ely CathedralText,Euclid|68880,15678|Greece|EuclidText,Early Gothic Religion/Philosophy|145913,136873|Middle Ages (400-1400)|General Essay,No Link Notes Entered…</text>
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<text>TEXT,Jutes|10497,76704|Middle Ages (400-1400)|JutesTEXT,Justinian|11301,77048|Middle Ages (400-1400)|JustinianTEXT,John Dunstable|73636,60863|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John DunstableTEXT,John Dunstable|79208,60863|Renaissance (1400-1600)|John DunstableTEXT,Jaspers|145348,285693|20th Century (1912-1991)|Karl JaspersTEXT,Jaspers|108043,285693|20th Century (1912-1991)|Karl JaspersTEXT,Jaspers|109276,285693|20th Century (1912-1991)|Karl JaspersTEXT,Jaspers|110335,285693|20th Century (1912-1991)|Karl JaspersTEXT,Jaspers|111338,285693|20th Century (1912-1991)|Karl JaspersTEXT,Jaspers|112285,285693|20th Century (1912-1991)|Karl JaspersTEXT,Jaspers|113277,285693|20th Century (1912-1991)|Karl JaspersTEXT,John of Salisbury|135300,135300|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John of SalisburyTEXT,John of Salisbury|65720,135300|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John of SalisburyTEXT,John of Salisbury|66234,135300|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John of SalisburyTEXT,John of Salisbury|34777,135300|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John of SalisburyTEXT,John Duns Scotus|145913,119499|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John Duns ScotusTEXT,John Duns Scotus|134404,119499|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John Duns ScotusTEXT,John Duns Scotus|118555,119499|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John Duns ScotusTEXT,John Duns Scotus|119499,119499|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John Duns ScotusTEXT,John Duns Scotus|121866,119499|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John Duns ScotusTEXT,John Duns Scotus|34777,119499|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John Duns ScotusTEXT,John Duns Scotus|114208,119499|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John Duns ScotusTEXT,John of Salisbury|135300,135300|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John of SalisburyTEXT,John of Salisbury|65720,135300|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John of SalisburyTEXT,John of Salisbury|66234,135300|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John of SalisburyTEXT,John of Salisbury|34777,135300|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John of SalisburyTEXT,John Scotus Erigena|144698,116079|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John Scotus ErigenaTEXT,Jesus|81264,13258|Rome|JESUS OF NAZARETHTEXT,Jesus Christ|81264,13258|Rome|JESUS OF NAZARETHTEXT,Justinian|106423,77048|Middle Ages (400-1400)|JustinianTEXT,Justinian|106702,77048|Middle Ages (400-1400)|JustinianTEXT,Justinian|37059,77048|Middle Ages (400-1400)|JustinianTEXT,Justinian|77048,77048|Middle Ages (400-1400)|JustinianTEXT,Justinian|50953,77048|Middle Ages (400-1400)|JustinianTEXT,Justinian|11301,77048|Middle Ages (400-1400)|JustinianTEXT,Justinian|97704,77048|Middle Ages (400-1400)|JustinianTEXT,Justinian|52184,77048|Middle Ages (400-1400)|JustinianTEXT,Justinian|96640,77048|Middle Ages (400-1400)|JustinianTEXT,Joan of Arc|49409,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Joan of ArcTEXT,Joan of Arc|73636,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Joan of ArcText,Jean Malouel|39739,101670|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Jean MalouelTEXT,John Dunstable|73636,60863|Renaissance (1400-1600)|JOHN DUNSTABLETEXT,John Dunstable|79208,60863|Renaissance (1400-1600)|JOHN DUNSTABLEText,John Locke|114453,73593|Baroque (1600-1750)|John LockeText,Justinian|11301,77048|Middle Ages (400-1400)|JustinianText,Justinian|11301,77048|Middle Ages (400-1400)|JustinianText,Jewish philosopher|139727,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon)Text,Johannes Kepler|69301,110123|Baroque (1600-1750)|Johannes KeplerText,Jean Pucelle|97914,70585|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Jean PucelleText,James I|79745,79882|Renaissance (1400-1600)|James IText,John Wycliffe|42536,114453|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John WycliffeText,Jean Buridan|126195,152897|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Jean BuridanText,Justinian|77048,19851|RomeText,Jewish Philosophy in the Middle Ages|126262,150922|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MEDIEVAL JEWISH PHILOSOPHY,No Link Notes Entered…</text>
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(1912-1991)|Moritz SchlickTEXT,Schlick|108043,289168|20th Century (1912-1991)|Moritz SchlickTEXT,Schlick|109276,289168|20th Century (1912-1991)|Moritz SchlickTEXT,Schlick|110335,289168|20th Century (1912-1991)|Moritz SchlickTEXT,Schlick|111338,289168|20th Century (1912-1991)|Moritz SchlickTEXT,Schlick|112285,289168|20th Century (1912-1991)|Moritz SchlickTEXT,Schlick|113277,289168|20th Century (1912-1991)|Moritz SchlickTEXT,Saint-Simon|145348,158193|Romantic (1803-1912)|Comte de Saint-SimonTEXT,Saint-Simon|108043,158193|Romantic (1803-1912)|Comte de Saint-SimonTEXT,Saint-Simon|109276,158193|Romantic (1803-1912)|Comte de Saint-SimonTEXT,Saint-Simon|110335,158193|Romantic (1803-1912)|Comte de Saint-SimonTEXT,Saint-Simon|111338,158193|Romantic (1803-1912)|Comte de Saint-SimonTEXT,Saint-Simon|112285,158193|Romantic (1803-1912)|Comte de Saint-SimonTEXT,Saint-Simon|113277,158193|Romantic (1803-1912)|Comte de Saint-SimonTEXT,Schelling|145123,158505|Romantic (1803-1912)|Friedrich von SchellingTEXT,Schelling|107988,158505|Romantic (1803-1912)|Friedrich von SchellingTEXT,Schelling|108820,158505|Romantic (1803-1912)|Friedrich von SchellingTEXT,Schelling|109897,158505|Romantic (1803-1912)|Friedrich von SchellingTEXT,Schelling|110890,158505|Romantic (1803-1912)|Friedrich von SchellingTEXT,Schelling|112118,158505|Romantic (1803-1912)|Friedrich von SchellingTEXT,Schelling|112977,158505|Romantic (1803-1912)|Friedrich von SchellingTEXT,Sidgwick|145123,162034|Romantic (1803-1912)|Henry SidgwickTEXT,Sidgwick|107988,162034|Romantic (1803-1912)|Henry SidgwickTEXT,Sidgwick|108820,162034|Romantic (1803-1912)|Henry SidgwickTEXT,Sidgwick|109897,162034|Romantic (1803-1912)|Henry SidgwickTEXT,Sidgwick|110890,162034|Romantic (1803-1912)|Henry SidgwickTEXT,Sidgwick|112118,162034|Romantic (1803-1912)|Henry SidgwickTEXT,Sidgwick|112977,162034|Romantic (1803-1912)|Henry SidgwickTEXT,Spinoza|145123,72945|Baroque (1600-1750)|Baruch (or Benedictus de) SpinozaTEXT,Sir Thomas 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(400-1400)|Siger de BrabantTEXT,Siger de Brabant|108627,119886|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Siger de BrabantTEXT,Siger de Brabant|109749,119886|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Siger de BrabantTEXT,Siger de Brabant|110797,119886|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Siger de BrabantTEXT,Siger de Brabant|111816,119886|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Siger de BrabantTEXT,Siger de Brabant|116565,119886|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Siger de BrabantTEXT,Siger de Brabant|119886,119886|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Siger de BrabantTEXT,Siger de Brabant|35011,119886|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Siger de BrabantTEXT,Siger de Brabant|112723,119886|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Siger de BrabantTEXT,St. Anselm|131984,131984|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Anselm of CanterburyTEXT,St. Anselm|132691,131984|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Anselm of CanterburyTEXT,St. Anselm|132691,131984|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Anselm of CanterburyTEXT,St. Anselm|28332,131984|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Anselm of CanterburyTEXT,St. Anselm|116565,131984|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Anselm of CanterburyTEXT,St. Anselm|122312,131984|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Anselm of CanterburyTEXT,St. Thomas Aquinas|139142,121243|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Solomon ibn Gabirol|144698TEXT,Solomon ibn Gabirol|150922TEXT,Solomon ibn Gabirol|107572TEXT,Solomon ibn Gabirol|106990TEXT,Solomon ibn Gabirol|108627TEXT,Solomon ibn Gabirol|109749TEXT,Solomon ibn Gabirol|110797TEXT,Solomon ibn Gabirol|133902TEXT,Solomon ibn Gabirol|111816TEXT,Solomon ibn Gabirol|112723TEXT,St. Basil|13447,36648|Rome|St. BasilTEXT,St. Basil|13447,36648|Rome|St. BasilTEXT,St. Ambrose|3844,37422|Rome|St. AmbroseTEXT,St. Ambrose|29298,37422|Rome|St. AmbroseTEXT,St. Ambrose|81425,37422|Rome|St. AmbroseTEXT,St. Ambrose|93290,37422|Rome|St. AmbroseTEXT,scepticism|81264,11239|Rome|SCEPTICISMTEXT,scepticism|134916,11239|Rome|SCEPTICISMTEXT,scepticism|115271,11239|Rome|SCEPTICISMTEXT,STOICISM|144698,11450|Rome|STOICISMTEXT,STOICISM|107572,11450|Rome|STOICISMTEXT,STOICISM|108627,11450|Rome|STOICISMTEXT,STOICISM|109749,11450|Rome|STOICISMTEXT,STOICISM|110797,11450|Rome|STOICISMTEXT,STOICISM|111816,11450|Rome|STOICISMTEXT,STOICISM|112723,11450|Rome|STOICISMTEXT,St. Jerome|3844,3844|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Jerome (Eusebius Hieronymus)TEXT,St. Augustine|3844,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of HippoTEXT,St. Augustine|29298,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of HippoTEXT,St. Augustine|81974,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of HippoTEXT,St. Augustine|93290,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of HippoTEXT,St. Augustine|95266,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of HippoTEXT,St. Augustine|76338,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of HippoTEXT,St. Augustine|13141,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of HippoTEXT,St. Augustine|131984,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of HippoTEXT,Socrates|133121,23226|Greece|SocratesTEXT,Seneca|144698,30466|Rome|Seneca (Lucius Anneaus SenecaTEXT,Seneca|107572,30466|Rome|Seneca (Lucius Anneaus SenecaTEXT,Seneca|108627,30466|Rome|Seneca (Lucius Anneaus SenecaTEXT,Seneca|109749,30466|Rome|Seneca (Lucius Anneaus SenecaTEXT,Seneca|110797,30466|Rome|Seneca (Lucius Anneaus SenecaTEXT,Seneca|111816,30466|Rome|Seneca (Lucius Anneaus SenecaTEXT,Seneca|112723,30466|Rome|Seneca (Lucius Anneaus SenecaTEXT,Seneca|74987,30466|Rome|Seneca (Lucius Anneaus SenecaTEXT,Sextus Empiricus|144698,31955|Rome|Sextus EmpiricusTEXT,Sextus Empiricus|107572,31955|Rome|Sextus EmpiricusTEXT,Sextus Empiricus|108627,31955|Rome|Sextus EmpiricusTEXT,Sextus Empiricus|109749,31955|Rome|Sextus EmpiricusTEXT,Sextus Empiricus|110797,31955|Rome|Sextus EmpiricusTEXT,Sextus Empiricus|111816,31955|Rome|Sextus EmpiricusTEXT,Sextus 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DeathTEXT,Black Death|44639,49406|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Black DeathTEXT,Bentham|145123,57149|Classic (1750-1803)|Jeremy BenthamTEXT,Bentham|107988,57149|Classic (1750-1803)|Jeremy BenthamTEXT,Bentham|108820,57149|Classic (1750-1803)|Jeremy BenthamTEXT,Bentham|109897,57149|Classic (1750-1803)|Jeremy BenthamTEXT,Bentham|110890,57149|Classic (1750-1803)|Jeremy BenthamTEXT,Bentham|112118,57149|Classic (1750-1803)|Jeremy BenthamTEXT,Bentham|112977,57149|Classic (1750-1803)|Jeremy BenthamTEXT,Berkeley|145123,75598|Baroque (1600-1750)|George BerkeleyTEXT,Berkeley|107988,75598|Baroque (1600-1750)|George BerkeleyTEXT,Berkeley|108820,75598|Baroque (1600-1750)|George BerkeleyTEXT,Berkeley|109897,75598|Baroque (1600-1750)|George BerkeleyTEXT,Berkeley|110890,75598|Baroque (1600-1750)|George BerkeleyTEXT,Berkeley|112118,75598|Baroque (1600-1750)|George BerkeleyTEXT,Berkeley|66424,75598|Baroque (1600-1750)|George BerkeleyTEXT,Berkeley|112977,75598|Baroque (1600-1750)|George 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(1400-1600)|Martin BucerTEXT,Bach|68746,54709|Baroque (1600-1750)|JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACHTEXT,Bach|68746,54709|Baroque (1600-1750)|JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACHText,Battle of Orleans|79745,73636|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Battle of OrleansText,Byzantine mosaics|12409,94710|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Byzantine MosaicsTEXT,Bible|139142,7039|Biblical History|The BibleTEXT,Bible|29298,7039|Biblical History|The BibleTEXT,Bible|85251,7039|Biblical History|The BibleTEXT,Bible|54031,7039|Biblical History|The BibleTEXT,Bible|130113,7039|Biblical History|The BibleTEXT,Bible|130355,7039|Biblical History|The BibleTEXT,Bible|116738,7039|Biblical History|The BibleTEXT,Bible|117101,7039|Biblical History|The BibleTEXT,Bible|117633,7039|Biblical History|The BibleTEXT,Bible|121243,7039|Biblical History|The BibleTEXT,Bible|122969,7039|Biblical History|The BibleTEXT,Bible|104512,7039|Biblical History|The BibleTEXT,Bible|113771,7039|Biblical History|The BibleTEXT,Bible|114453,7039|Biblical History|The BibleTEXT,Bible|114832,7039|Biblical History|The BibleTEXT,Bible|83049,7039|Biblical History|The BibleTEXT,Bible|42536,7039|Biblical History|The BibleText,Black Death|141408,49406|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Black DeathText,Black Death|103253,49406|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Black DeathText,Black Death|103650,49406|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Black DeathText,Black Death|114208,49406|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Black DeathText,Byzantium: Christianity in the East|126262Text,Byzantine Missionary Outreach|126262Text,British prelate and scholar|138557,118436|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Robert GrossetesteText,British scholar|152897,114208|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William of OckhamText,Byzantine Empire|140221Text,barbarians|142350,75855|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE BARBARIAN INVASIONSText,BYZANTIUM|148121,46667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|ByzantiumText,Byzantine|77048,149849|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE BYZANTINE WORLDText,Byzantium|75521,46667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|ByzantiumText,Book of Kells|60037,50169|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Book of KellsText,Bernard of Clairvaux|69637,133428|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Bernard of ClairvauxText,Bernard of Clairvaux|132691,133428|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Bernard of ClairvauxText,Byzantium|105502,46667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|ByzantiumText,Byzantine Empire|96640Text,Benedictine|133428Text,Byzantine mosaic|51710,107079|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Byzantine MosaicsText,Baptistry in Pisa|51710,97111|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Pisa Cathedral| Baptistry and TowerText,Bonaventure|119886,121012|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Bonaventure (Giovanni di Fidanza)Text,Benedictine|121243Text,ballate|72013,113536|Middle Ages (400-1400)Text,Black Prince|114832,3589|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Black PrinceText,Boethius (Anicius Severimus)|8166Text,Byzantium — Christianity in the East|126262,148121|Middle Ages (400-1400)|BYZANTIUM: CHRISTIANITY IN THE EAST,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Byzantium — Missionary Outreach|126262,149610|Middle Ages (400-1400)|BYZANTINE MISSIONARY OUTREACH,No Link Notes 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<text>TEXT,The Book of Durrow|37673,56940|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Book of DurrowTEXT,The Later Crusades|55594,48108|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Later CrusadesTEXT,The Early Crusades|55594,47707|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Early CrusadesTEXT,Tower of London|61701,47523|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Tower of LondonTEXT,Tower of London|63655,47523|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Tower of LondonTEXT,The Later Crusades|63140,48108|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Later CrusadesTEXT,The Later Crusades|24700,48108|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Later CrusadesTEXT,The Early Crusades|24700,47707|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Early CrusadesTEXT,Tower of London|25893,63655|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Tower of LondonTEXT,trouveres|64247,77987|Middle Ages (400-1400)|trouveresTEXT,troubadours|64247,33721|Middle Ages (400-1400)|troubadoursTEXT,The Gothic Mind|34777,48275|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Gothic MindTEXT,The 100 Years War|70317,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The 100 Years WarTEXT,tempus perfectum|71707,64440|Middle Ages (400-1400)|tempus perfectumTEXT,the Investiture Controversy|147281TEXT,THE INVESTITURE CONTROVERSY|131165TEXT,THE ICONOCLASTIC CONTROVERSY|96791TEXT,THE DONATION OF CONSTANTINE|101357TEXT,Theophrastus|144528,28483|Greece|TheophrastusTEXT,Theophrastus|139142,28483|Greece|TheophrastusTEXT,Theophrastus|107463,28483|Greece|TheophrastusTEXT,Theophrastus|108310,28483|Greece|TheophrastusTEXT,Theophrastus|109394,28483|Greece|TheophrastusTEXT,Theophrastus|110555,28483|Greece|TheophrastusTEXT,Theophrastus|111542,28483|Greece|TheophrastusTEXT,Theophrastus|112428,28483|Greece|TheophrastusTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|144698,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|139142,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|139727,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|107572,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|108627,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|109749,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|110797,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|134404,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|111816,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|116565,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|119087,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|119499,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|119886,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|120306,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|121243,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|121866,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|122969,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|65352,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|65720,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|65994,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|35409,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|125160,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|112723,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasTEXT,Thomas Aquinas|114208,139142|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas AquinasText,the Basilica|106702,46667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Hagia SophiaTEXT,The Book of Durrow|37673,50169|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Book of DurrowTEXT,The Book of Durrow|50169,50169|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Book of DurrowTEXT,The Book of Durrow|56940,50169|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Book of DurrowTEXT,The Book of Durrow|57989,50169|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Book of DurrowTEXT,The Book of Durrow|16385,50169|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Book of DurrowTEXT,The Book of Kells|50169,50169|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Book of KellsTEXT,The Book of Kells|56940,50169|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Book of KellsTEXT,The Book of Kells|57727,50169|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Book of KellsTEXT,The Book of Kells|57989,50169|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Book of KellsTEXT,The Book of Kells|16385,50169|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Book of KellsTEXT,titanic|74393,80823|Romantic (1803-1912)|S.S. TitanicText,The minarets|106702,94716|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Hagia SophiaText,the last great Roman emperor|54557,82823|Middle Ages (400-1400)TEXT,the 100 Years War|61647,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The 100 Years WarTEXT,The 100 Years War|70317,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The 100 Years WarTEXT,The 100 Years War|49409,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The 100 Years WarTEXT,the 100 Years War|73636,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The 100 Years WarTEXT,the 100 Years War|80122,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The 100 Years WarText,The controversy|94710Text,the central "White Tower"|53323,47523|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Tower of LondonText,Tournai Cathedral nave|26385,62849|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Tournai Cathedral naveText,The rose window and the towers were added in Gothic times|94989Text,The interior|94989,88965|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Durham CathedralTEXT,Tower of London|53323,53323|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Tower of LondonTEXT,Tower of London|61701,53323|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Tower of LondonTEXT,Tower of London|47523,53323|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Tower of LondonTEXT,Tower of London|63655,53323|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Tower of LondonTEXT,Tower of London|25893,53323|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Tower of LondonTEXT,Tower of London|115184,53323|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Tower of LondonText,Tewkesbury Abbey|39583,104152|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Tewkesbury AbbeyText,the last great ruler in Italy|77048,37059|Middle Ages (400-1400)|End of the Roman EmpireText,The Byzantine World|126262,149849|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE BYZANTINE WORLDText,the|145913,145953|Middle Ages (400-1400)|theText,the Fibonacci Series|139727,49053|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Fibonacci SeriesText,the Crusades|141408,47707|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Early CrusadesText,The Feudal System|142033,46134|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Feudal SystemText,The Feudal System|143036,46134|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Feudal SystemText,the Gothic|143960,48857|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Great Gothic BuildingsText,The Hundred Years War|143535,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The 100 Years WarText,the greatest and most political of all medieval popes|30480Text,The Fourth Crusade|149849,64939|Middle Ages (400-1400)|4TH CRUSADEText,These battles continued for centuries|59852Text,The Early Crusades|152558,47707|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Early CrusadesText,The Later Crusades|152558,48108|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Later CrusadesText,The Rise of Islam|151107,45883|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Rise of IslamText,The Church|75855,147281|Middle Ages (400-1400)|RELIGIOUS ISSUES IN THE MIDDLE AGESText,The Lindisfarne Gospels|56940,50169|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Lindisfarne GospelsText,the Netherlands|73363,37721|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The NetherlandsText,the Roman Empire dissolved|50474,37059|Middle Ages (400-1400)|End of the Roman EmpireText,The Rise of Islam|96791,45883|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Rise of IslamText,The upper two levels|9295,87386|Middle Ages (400-1400)|AachenText,Thomas Becket|135300,29889|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas BecketText,trivium|135300,6465|Greece|triviumText,The Academy|97704,16765|Greece|The AcademyText,The Lyceum|97704,48137|GreeceText,The Venerable Bede|154462,138339|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Venerable BedeText,Thomas Becket|98488,29889|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas BecketText,the founder of Western monasticism|93071,16708|Rome|St. Benedict of Nursia </text>
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<text>TEXT,Roland|55880,25398|Middle Ages (400-1400)|RolandTEXT,Romanesque Buildings|53323,47523|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Romanesque BuildingsTEXT,Romanesque Buildings|26385,47523|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Romanesque BuildingsTEXT,Rudolf I|30258,44454|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Rudolf ITEXT,Roger Bacon|34777,65352|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Roger BaconTEXT,Romanesque Buildings|73843,47523|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Romanesque BuildingsTEXT,ROCOCO|74393,36098|Baroque (1600-1750)|ROCOCOTEXT,Richard Wagner|80263,56583|Romantic (1803-1912)|Richard WagnerText,Russell|145348,287652|20th Century (1912-1991)|Bertrand RussellText,Russell|108043,287652|20th Century (1912-1991)|Bertrand RussellText,Russell|109276,287652|20th Century (1912-1991)|Bertrand RussellText,Russell|110335,287652|20th Century (1912-1991)|Bertrand RussellText,Russell|111338,287652|20th Century (1912-1991)|Bertrand RussellText,Russell|112285,287652|20th Century (1912-1991)|Bertrand RussellText,Russell|113277,287652|20th Century (1912-1991)|Bertrand RussellText,Royce|145123,165588|Romantic (1803-1912)|Josiah RoyceText,Royce|107988,165588|Romantic (1803-1912)|Josiah RoyceText,Royce|108820,165588|Romantic (1803-1912)|Josiah RoyceText,Royce|109897,165588|Romantic (1803-1912)|Josiah RoyceText,Royce|110890,165588|Romantic (1803-1912)|Josiah RoyceText,Royce|112118,165588|Romantic (1803-1912)|Josiah RoyceText,Royce|112977,165588|Romantic (1803-1912)|Josiah RoyceTEXT,Reimarus|145123,79098|Baroque (1600-1750)|Hermann ReimaruTEXT,Reimarus|107988,79098|Baroque (1600-1750)|Hermann ReimaruTEXT,Reimarus|108820,79098|Baroque (1600-1750)|Hermann ReimaruTEXT,Reimarus|109897,79098|Baroque (1600-1750)|Hermann ReimaruTEXT,Reimarus|110890,79098|Baroque (1600-1750)|Hermann ReimaruTEXT,Reimarus|112118,79098|Baroque (1600-1750)|Hermann ReimaruTEXT,Reimarus|112977,79098|Baroque (1600-1750)|Hermann ReimaruTEXT,Robert Grosseteste|138557,118436|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Robert GrossetesteTEXT,Roger Bacon|138809,118555|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Roger BaconTEXT,Roger Bacon|139142,118555|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Roger BaconTEXT,Roger Bacon|134404,118555|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Roger BaconTEXT,Roger Bacon|118436,118555|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Roger BaconTEXT,Roger Bacon|118555,118555|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Roger BaconTEXT,Roger Bacon|119499,118555|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Roger BaconTEXT,Roger Bacon|121866,118555|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Roger BaconTEXT,Roger Bacon|65352,118555|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Roger BaconTEXT,Roger Bacon|65994,118555|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Roger BaconTEXT,Roger Bacon|34777,118555|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Roger BaconTEXT,Roger Bacon|124176,118555|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Roger BaconTEXT,Roger Bacon|114208,118555|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Roger BaconTEXT,Rule of St. Benedict|93071,16452|Rome|Rule of St. BenedictTEXT,Rule of St. Benedict|95266,16452|Rome|Rule of St. BenedictTEXT,Richard Wagner|80263,56583|Romantic (1803-1912)|RICHARD WAGNERTEXT,Richard Strauss|43798,98356|Romantic (1803-1912)|RICHARD STRAUSSTEXT,Ramus|107988,85490|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Petrus RamusTEXT,Ramus|108820,85490|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Petrus RamusTEXT,Ramus|109897,85490|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Petrus RamusTEXT,Ramus|110890,85490|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Petrus RamusTEXT,Ramus|112118,85490|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Petrus RamusTEXT,Ramus|112977,85490|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Petrus RamusTEXT,ROCOCO|74393,36098|Baroque (1600-1750)|The RococoText,Realism and Nominalism|126262,145913|Middle Ages (400-1400)|REALISM AND NOMINALISMText,Religious Issues in the Middle Ages|126262Text,Ritual|126262,148917|Middle Ages (400-1400)|RITUAL Text,Roman scholar|138339,84056|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Boethius (Anicius Severimus)Text,Romanesque Religion & Philosophy|145913Text,rise of the nation-state|145953,143198|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Relations between statesText,rise of the city and the development of new classes|145953Text,rise of the universities|145953Text,Roman arches|66901,7276|Rome|Rounded ArchText,Reims|57305,100441|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Riems CathedralText,Richard I|53323,29889|Middle Ages (400-1400)Text,Romanesque|100441Text,realist|119499,133005|Middle Ages (400-1400)|realismText,Raphael|103060,106205|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio)Text,Reims Cathedral|70705,100441|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Riems CathedralText,Reformation|115184,72218|Renaissance (1400-1600)|THE REFORMATIONText,Richard II|115184,79745|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Richard IIText,Romanesque Religion/Philosophy|145913,135509|Middle Ages (400-1400)|General Essay,No Link Notes Entered…</text>
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<text>TEXT,Gregory the Great|15149,54848|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Gregory the GreatTEXT,Great Gothic Buildings|51710,48857|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Great Gothic BuildingsTEXT,Great Gothic Buildings|32361,48857|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Great Gothic BuildingsTEXT,Great Gothic Buildings|32763,48857|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Great Gothic BuildingsTEXT,Great Schism|69478,80263|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Great SchismTEXT,Great Gothic Buildings|70108,48857|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Great Gothic BuildingsTEXT,Great Gothic Buildings|70585,48857|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Great Gothic BuildingsTEXT,Geoffrey Chaucer|38808,70108|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Geoffrey ChaucerTEXT,Giovanni Boccaccio|39229,72790|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Giovanni BoccaccioTEXT,Great Gothic Buildings|39583,48857|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Great Gothic BuildingsTEXT,Great Gothic Buildings|83049,48857|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Great Gothic BuildingsTEXT,Guillame de Machaut|41595,70705|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Guillame de MachautTEXT,Grosseteste|138557,118436|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Robert GrossetesteTEXT,Grosseteste|138809,118436|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Robert GrossetesteTEXT,Grosseteste|139142,118436|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Robert GrossetesteTEXT,Grosseteste|118436,118436|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Robert GrossetesteTEXT,Grosseteste|65720,118436|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Robert GrossetesteTEXT,Grosseteste|65720,118436|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Robert GrossetesteTEXT,Grosseteste|34777,118436|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Robert GrossetesteTEXT,Grosseteste|124176,118436|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Robert GrossetesteTEXT,Gregory I|93290,93290|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Gregory I the GreatTEXT,Gregory I|93290,93290|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Gregory I the GreatTEXT,Gregory I|95266,93290|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Gregory I the GreatTEXT,Gregory I|13447,93290|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Gregory I the GreatTEXT,Gregory I|13447,93290|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Gregory I the GreatTEXT,Gregory I|102088,93290|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Gregory I the GreatTEXT,Gregory I|102088,93290|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Gregory I the GreatTEXT,Gregory I|93290,93290|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Gregory I the GreatTEXT,Giotto|101013,102667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Giotto di BondoneTEXT,Giotto|70108,102667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Giotto di BondoneTEXT,Giotto|102667,102667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Giotto di BondoneTEXT,Giotto|103060,102667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Giotto di BondoneTEXT,Giotto|49666,102667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Giotto di BondoneTEXT,Giotto|49666,102667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Giotto di BondoneTEXT,Giotto|73993,102667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Giotto di BondoneTEXT,Giotto|75172,102667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Giotto di BondoneTEXT,Giotto|101013,102667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Giotto di BondoneTEXT,Giotto di Bondone|102667,102667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Giotto di BondoneTEXT,Giotto di Bondone|75172,102667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Giotto di BondoneText,Gospel Book of Charlemagne|20919Text,Gospel Book of Otto III|21145,53323|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Gospel Book of Otto IIIText,Gislebertus|26385,96139|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Gislebertus hoc fecitTEXT,Gregorian chant|95266,54848|Middle Ages (400-1400)|GREGORIAN CHANTTEXT,Gregorian chant|77048,54848|Middle Ages (400-1400)|GREGORIAN CHANTTEXT,Gregorian chant|50953,54848|Middle Ages (400-1400)|GREGORIAN CHANTTEXT,Gregorian chant|37673,54848|Middle Ages (400-1400)|GREGORIAN CHANTTEXT,GREGORIAN CHANT|54848,54848|Middle Ages (400-1400)|GREGORIAN CHANTTEXT,Gregorian chant|15149,54848|Middle Ages (400-1400)|GREGORIAN CHANTText,Giotto|103060,49666|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Proto HumanismText,Giovanni da Milano|40633,103650|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Giovanni da MilanoText,Gregory I|55880,93290|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Gregory I the GreatText,Gothic|94989,98691|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Durham Cathedral (tower added)Text,German theologian|139142Text,Galileo|152897,122313|Baroque (1600-1750)|Galileo GalileiText,Galen|153262,17906|Rome|GalenText,Germanic successor states|140221,37059|Middle Ages (400-1400)|End of the Roman EmpireText,guilds|60926,141611|Middle Ages (400-1400)|craft guildsText,Gregory|77048,93290|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Gregory I the GreatText,Gregory the Great|54848,93290|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Gregory I the GreatText,Goths|66588,75855|Middle Ages (400-1400)|GOTHSText,Gloucester|67477,100254|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Gloucester CathedralText,Germanic tribes|105502,75855|Middle Ages (400-1400)|the barbarian invasionsText,Gregory the Great|37673,93290|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Gregory I the GreatText,Gospel Book of Charlemagne|6016,9486|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Gospel Book of CharlemagneText,Gregory of Nanzianzus|116079,36648|Rome|St. Gregory of NazianzusText,Gregory of Nazianzus|116079,36648|Rome|St. Gregory of NazianzusText,Gregory of Nyssa|116079,36919|Rome|St. Gregory of NyssaText,Gothic organum|53579,51877|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Notre Dame organumText,Great Schism II|131637,113536|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE GREAT SCHISM IIText,Giovanni Pisano|101624,61429|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Giovanni PisanoText,Giotto|103253,102667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Giotto di BondoneText,Gregory XI|114832,80263|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Gregory XIText,Giotto di Bondone|40633,75172|Middle Ages (400-1400)|GiottoText,Giotto di Bondone |40633,102667|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Giotto di Bondone</text>
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<text>TEXT,Lindisfarne|16919,56609|Middle Ages (400-1400)|LindisfarneTEXT,Louis XIV|58444,30356|Baroque (1600-1750)|Louis XIVTEXT,Leif Eriksson|20077,60527|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Leif ErikssonTEXT,Leir Eriksson|24939,60527|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Leir ErikssonTEXT,Louis IX|30143,65182|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Louis IXTEXT,Leonin|33721,51877|Middle Ages (400-1400)|LeoninTEXT,Leonardo Fibonacci|36664,68388|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Leonardo FibonacciTEXT,Locke|145123,73593|Baroque (1600-1750)|John LockeTEXT,Locke|107988,73593|Baroque (1600-1750)|John LockeTEXT,Locke|108820,73593|Baroque (1600-1750)|John LockeTEXT,Locke|109897,73593|Baroque (1600-1750)|John LockeTEXT,Locke|110890,73593|Baroque (1600-1750)|John LockeTEXT,Locke|112118,73593|Baroque (1600-1750)|John LockeTEXT,Locke|112977,73593|Baroque (1600-1750)|John LockeTEXT,Locke|114453,73593|Baroque (1600-1750)|John LockeTEXT,Leibniz|107988,75477|Baroque (1600-1750)|Gottfried Wilhelm von LeibnizTEXT,Leibniz|108820,75477|Baroque (1600-1750)|Gottfried Wilhelm von LeibnizTEXT,Leibniz|109897,75477|Baroque (1600-1750)|Gottfried Wilhelm von LeibnizTEXT,Leibniz|110890,75477|Baroque (1600-1750)|Gottfried Wilhelm von LeibnizTEXT,Leibniz|112118,75477|Baroque (1600-1750)|Gottfried Wilhelm von LeibnizTEXT,Leibniz|112977,75477|Baroque (1600-1750)|Gottfried Wilhelm von LeibnizTEXT,Levi ben Gershom|150922,113771|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Levi ben GershomTEXT,Levi ben Gershom|35011,113771|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Levi ben GershomTEXT,Levi ben Gershom|113771,113771|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Levi ben GershomTEXT,Levi ben Gershom|115927,113771|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Levi ben GershomTEXT,Levi ben Gershom|115927,113771|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Levi ben GershomTEXT,Lucretius|144698,28883|Rome|Lucretius (Titus Lucretius Carus)TEXT,Lucretius|107572,28883|Rome|Lucretius (Titus Lucretius Carus)TEXT,Lucretius|108627,28883|Rome|Lucretius (Titus Lucretius Carus)TEXT,Lucretius|109749,28883|Rome|Lucretius (Titus Lucretius Carus)TEXT,Lucretius|110797,28883|Rome|Lucretius (Titus Lucretius Carus)TEXT,Lucretius|111816,28883|Rome|Lucretius (Titus Lucretius Carus)TEXT,Lucretius|112723,28883|Rome|Lucretius (Titus Lucretius Carus)TEXT,Leonardo da Vinci|68746,103997|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Leonardo da VinciTEXT,Leonardo da Vinci|69301,103997|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Leonardo da VinciTEXT,Lindisfarne Gospels|86583,50169|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Lindisfarne GospelsTEXT,Lindisfarne Gospels|50169,50169|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Lindisfarne GospelsTEXT,Lindisfarne Gospels|56940,50169|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Lindisfarne GospelsTEXT,Lindisfarne Gospels|57989,50169|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Lindisfarne GospelsTEXT,Lindisfarne Gospels|16385,50169|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Lindisfarne GospelsTEXT,Landini|70705,72013|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Francesco LandiniTEXT,Landini|71231,72013|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Francesco LandiniTEXT,Landini|72013,72013|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Francesco LandiniTEXT,Landini|78647,72013|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Francesco LandiniTEXT,Landini|42019,72013|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Francesco LandiniTEXT,Landini|70705,72013|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Francesco LandiniTEXT,Landini|71231,72013|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Francesco LandiniTEXT,Landini|72013,72013|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Francesco LandiniTEXT,Landini|78647,72013|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Francesco LandiniTEXT,Landini|42019,72013|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Francesco LandiniTEXT,Luther|145123,39521|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Martin LutherTEXT,Luther|107988,39521|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Martin LutherTEXT,Luther|108820,39521|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Martin LutherTEXT,Luther|109897,39521|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Martin LutherTEXT,Luther|110890,39521|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Martin LutherTEXT,Luther|112118,39521|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Martin LutherTEXT,Luther|112977,39521|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Martin LutherTEXT,Luther|112977,39521|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Martin LutherTEXT,Louis XIV|58444,30356|Baroque (1600-1750)|Louis XIVTEXT,Leonardo|139727,103997|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Leonardo da VinciTEXT,Leonardo|68388,103997|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Leonardo da VinciTEXT,Leonardo|68746,103997|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Leonardo da VinciTEXT,Leonardo|69301,103997|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Leonardo da VinciTEXT,Leonardo|125160,103997|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Leonardo da VinciTEXT,Leonardo|36664,103997|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Leonardo da VinciTEXT,Leonardo|104512,103997|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Leonardo da VinciText,Late Gothic Intro|67731,52452|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Late Gothic IntroText,Late Gothic Religion & Philosophy|145913Text,Lindisfarne Gospels |56940,50169|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Lindisfarne GospelsText,Lord Clark|58823Text,Louis VII|69637,30143|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Louis VIIText,Louis IX|98488,65182|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Louis IXText,Louis IX|100641,65182|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Louis IXText,Lincoln|67477,98823|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Lincoln CathedralText,Laon|57305,100441|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Laon CathedralText,La Sainte-Chapelle|57305,100641|Middle Ages (400-1400)|La Sainte-ChapelleText,Lombards|93290,75855|Middle Ages (400-1400)|LOMBARDSText,Lanfranc|131984,28332|Middle Ages (400-1400)|LanfrancText,Lutheranism|118182,39521|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The German ReformationText,Limbourg brothers|101670,89354|Renaissance (1400-1600)|The Limbourg BrothersText,Luca Signorelli|104512,107839|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Luca SignorelliText,Ludwig IV|26210,114208|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Ludwig IVText,Leonardo Fibonacci|125160,139727|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Leonardo FibonacciText,Late Gothic Religion/Philosophy|145913,137354|Middle Ages (400-1400),No Link Notes Entered…</text>
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<text>TEXT,Iona|16919,56492|Middle Ages (400-1400)|IonaTEXT,Intro|67731,52452|Middle Ages (400-1400)|IntroTEXT,IMPRESSIONISM|74528,46534|Romantic (1803-1912)|IMPRESSIONISMTEXT,Intro|74528,7039|Renaissance (1400-1600)|introTEXT,Inquisition|117101,117980|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE INQUISITIONTEXT,INQUISITION|117980,117980|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE INQUISITIONTEXT,Inquisition|118182,117980|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE INQUISITIONTEXT,Inquisition|115690,117980|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE INQUISITIONText,ICONOCLASTIC CONTROVERSY|217561400)|Durham CathedralIN THE MIDDLE AGES 1400)|HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF PHILOSOPHICAL AND THEOLOGICAL THOUGHTCHRISTIANITY IN THE EASTMISSIONARY OUTREACHPHILOSOPHYPHILOSOPHYPHILOSOPHERS AND THEOLOGIANSText,Italian theologian and philosopher|139142AquinasGreat)Text,Islam|140221,45883|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Rise of IslamEASTConstantinople in 1204Text,Innocent III|64939,30480|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Pope Innocent IIIText,Innocent III|77399,30480|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Innocent IIIText,Innocent III|146818,30480|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Innocent IIIText,Innocent III|117101,30480|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Innocent III1198 Pope Innocent III statedRELIGION AND PHILOSOPHYAND PHILOSOPHYRELIGION AND PHILOSOPHYRELIGION AND PHILOSOPHYRELIGION AND PHILOSOPHYText,increase in trade|145953began to revivecraft guilds1400)|villages that grew into towns as they profited from the revival of tradecentury to 1400 over fifty universities came into existenceWORLD(NEOARISTOTELIANISM)Ottoman Turks in 1453Saltwood)Text,illuminated manuscripts|59268,9486|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Gospel Book of CharlemagneFossanovaText,Islam|50474,45883|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The Rise of Islamwindowsby windowswindowsEASTtenth century(East/West split)Text,Investiture Controversy|23773CONTROVERSYfounder of Western monasticismText,Innocent II|133428,133428|Middle Ages (400-1400)Romanesque eraRomanesque era owing to the Norman Conquestthis new monumental architectural style12161216121612161216Text,influential scholar|118436,138557|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Robert Grossetestefounder of Western monasticismRomanesque era owing to the Norman ConquestSeverimus)ChapelleControversyof God)of God)of Philosophical and Theological Thoughtof Philosophical and Theological Thoughtof Philosophical and Theological Thoughtof Philosophical and Theological Thoughtof Philosophical and Theological ThoughtPhilosophical and Theological Thoughtof Philosophical and Theological ThoughtAhmad ibn Rushd)Text,Islamic Philosophy in the Middle Ages|126262,152694|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MEDIEVAL ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY,No Link Notes Entered…</text>
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<text>TEXT,Mohammed|17398,55455|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MohammedTEXT,Magna Carta|58444,66234|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Magna CartaTEXT,Methodius|22308,59646|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MethodiusTEXT,minnesingers|64247,32107|Middle Ages (400-1400)|minnesingersTEXT,Magna Carta|77399,66234|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Magna CartaTEXT,Model Parliament|77667,66424|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Model ParliamentTEXT,Medici|70317,38780|Renaissance (1400-1600)|MediciTEXT,MANNERISM|73993,40685|Renaissance (1400-1600)|MANNERISMTEXT,Model Parliament|3589,66424|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Model ParliamentTEXT,Medici|37959,38780|Renaissance (1400-1600)|MediciTEXT,Marcel|145348,286043|20th Century (1912-1991)|Gabriel MarcelTEXT,Marcel|108043,286043|20th Century (1912-1991)|Gabriel MarcelTEXT,Marcel|109276,286043|20th Century (1912-1991)|Gabriel MarcelTEXT,Marcel|110335,286043|20th Century (1912-1991)|Gabriel MarcelTEXT,Marcel|111338,286043|20th Century (1912-1991)|Gabriel MarcelTEXT,Marcel|112285,286043|20th Century (1912-1991)|Gabriel MarcelTEXT,Marcel|113277,286043|20th Century (1912-1991)|Gabriel MarcelTEXT,Marx|145348,159569|Romantic (1803-1912)|Karl MarxTEXT,Marx|108043,159569|Romantic (1803-1912)|Karl MarxTEXT,Marx|109276,159569|Romantic (1803-1912)|Karl MarxTEXT,Marx|110335,159569|Romantic (1803-1912)|Karl MarxTEXT,Marx|111338,159569|Romantic (1803-1912)|Karl MarxTEXT,Marx|112285,159569|Romantic (1803-1912)|Karl MarxTEXT,Marx|113277,159569|Romantic (1803-1912)|Karl MarxText,Mill|145123,161084|Romantic (1803-1912)|John Stuart MillText,Mill|107988,161084|Romantic (1803-1912)|John Stuart MillText,Mill|108820,161084|Romantic (1803-1912)|John Stuart MillText,Mill|109897,161084|Romantic (1803-1912)|John Stuart MillText,Mill|110890,161084|Romantic (1803-1912)|John Stuart MillText,Mill|112118,161084|Romantic (1803-1912)|John Stuart MillText,Mill|112977,161084|Romantic (1803-1912)|John Stuart MillText,Mach|145348,164374|Romantic (1803-1912)|Ernst MachText,Mach|108043,164374|Romantic 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(1600-1750)|Nicolas MalebrancheTEXT,Malebranche|112977,74868|Baroque (1600-1750)|Nicolas MalebrancheTEXT,Mirandola|145123,84911|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Pico Della MirandolaTEXT,Mirandola|107988,84911|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Pico Della MirandolaTEXT,Mirandola|108820,84911|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Pico Della MirandolaTEXT,Mirandola|109897,84911|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Pico Della MirandolaTEXT,Mirandola|110890,84911|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Pico Della MirandolaTEXT,Mirandola|112118,84911|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Pico Della MirandolaTEXT,Mirandola|112977,84911|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Pico Della MirandolaTEXT,Mirandola|115927,84911|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Pico Della MirandolaTEXT,Monasticism|126262,148917|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MONASTICISMTEXT,MONASTICISM|148917,148917|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MONASTICISMTEXT,monasticism|93071,148917|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MONASTICISMTEXT,monasticism|13447,148917|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MONASTICISMTEXT,Monasticism|56940,148917|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MONASTICISMTEXT,Marcus Aurelius|144698,31607|Rome|Marcus Aurelius (Marcus Annius Verus)TEXT,Marcus Aurelius|107572,31607|Rome|Marcus Aurelius (Marcus Annius Verus)TEXT,Marcus Aurelius|108627,31607|Rome|Marcus Aurelius (Marcus Annius Verus)TEXT,Marcus Aurelius|109749,31607|Rome|Marcus Aurelius (Marcus Annius Verus)TEXT,Marcus Aurelius|110797,31607|Rome|Marcus Aurelius (Marcus Annius Verus)TEXT,Marcus Aurelius|111816,31607|Rome|Marcus Aurelius (Marcus Annius Verus)TEXT,Marcus Aurelius|112723,31607|Rome|Marcus Aurelius (Marcus Annius Verus)TEXT,Manet|74528,133457|Romantic (1803-1912)|Edouard ManetTEXT,Mozart|68746,43295|Classic (1750-1803)|WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZARTTEXT,Masaccio|75172,89871|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Masaccio (Tomaso di ser Giovanni)TEXT,Michelangelo|104512,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo BuonarrotiTEXT,Munzer|145123,77044|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas MunzerTEXT,Munzer|107988,77044|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas MunzerTEXT,Munzer|108820,77044|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas MunzerTEXT,Munzer|109897,77044|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas MunzerTEXT,Munzer|110890,77044|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas MunzerTEXT,Munzer|112118,77044|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas MunzerTEXT,Munzer|112977,77044|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Thomas MunzerText,mosaics|21756,94710|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Byzantine MosaicsText,Methodius|59646,149610|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MethodiusText,Melchior Broderlam|40207,102339|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Melchior BroderlamText,Milan Cathedral|40633,104316|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Milan CathedralText,Medieval Jewish Philosophy|126262Text,Medieval Islam|126262,126262|Middle Ages (400-1400)Text,Medieval Islam|126262,150922|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MEDIEVAL ISLAM Text,Medieval Islamic Philosophy|126262Text,Medieval Islam|126262,150922|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MEDIEVAL ISLAMText,Medieval Islam|126262,150922|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MEDIEVAL ISLAMText,Medieval Islam|126262,150922|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MEDIEVAL ISLAMText,Medieval Islam|126262,150922|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MEDIEVAL ISLAMText,Medieval Islam|126262,150922|Middle Ages (400-1400)Text,Medieval Philosophy and Religion|106990,126262|Middle Ages (400-1400)|ESSAY OUTLINEText,Medieval Islam|126262,150922|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MEDIEVAL ISLAM Text,Medieval Islam|126262,150922|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MEDIEVAL ISLAM Text,manorial|58158,141611|Middle Ages (400-1400)|manorialismText,manorial|70317,141611|Middle Ages (400-1400)|manorialismText,Medieval Islam|55594,150922|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MEDIEVAL ISLAMText,Milan|57305,104316|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Milan CathedralText,Moses|107079,7279|Biblical History|MOSESText,Manichaeism|81264,28091|Rome|MANICHEAISMText,Manicheaism|81264,28091|RomeText,Manichaeists|81425,28091|RomeText,Mosaics|96640,94710|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Byzantine MosaicsText,Medieval Philosophy and Religion|130658,144298|Middle Ages (400-1400)Text,monastery of Cluny|131637,95532|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Abbey Church of ClunyText,mosaic|100038,94710|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Byzantine MosaicsText,man of science|118555,138809|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Roger BaconText,Medieval Philosophy and Religion|116463,144298|Middle Ages (400-1400)Text,Michelangelo|101670,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo BuonarrotiText,Machaut|72013,70705|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Guillame de MachautText,Medieval Philosophy and Religion|113536,144298|Middle Ages (400-1400)Text,Mondino dei Liucci|160476,153262|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Mondino dei LiucciText,Marco Polo|31575,139727|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Marco PoloText,Marco Polo|125160,139727|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Marco PoloText,Medieval Philosophy and Religion|116079,144298|Middle Ages (400-1400)Text,Medieval Philosophy and Religion|96791,144298|Middle Ages (400-1400)Text,Maimonides|137183,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon)Text,Medieval Religious Issues|126262,147281|Middle Ages (400-1400)|RELIGIOUS ISSUES IN THE MIDDLE AGES,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Medieval Islamic Philosophy|126262,152694|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MEDIEVAL ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY,No Link Notes Entered…</text>
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<text>TEXT,Napoleon|53816,28556|Classic (1750-1803)|NapoleonTEXT,Napoleon|58823,28901|Classic (1750-1803)|NapoleonTEXT,Notre Dame organum|33721,51877|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Notre Dame organumTEXT,Neurath|145348,286867|20th Century (1912-1991)|Otto NeurathTEXT,Neurath|108043,286867|20th Century (1912-1991)|Otto NeurathTEXT,Neurath|109276,286867|20th Century (1912-1991)|Otto NeurathTEXT,Neurath|110335,286867|20th Century (1912-1991)|Otto NeurathTEXT,Neurath|111338,286867|20th Century (1912-1991)|Otto NeurathTEXT,Neurath|112285,286867|20th Century (1912-1991)|Otto NeurathTEXT,Neurath|113277,286867|20th Century (1912-1991)|Otto NeurathTEXT,Nicholas of Cusa|101357,83191|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicholas of CusaTEXT,Nicholas of Cusa|101357,83191|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicholas of CusaTEXT,Nicholas of Cusa|101357,83191|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Nicholas of CusaText,Nicholas of Autrecourt|134916,115271|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Nicholas of AutrecourtTEXT,NEOARISTOTELIANISM|144698TEXT,NEOARISTOTELIANISM|107572TEXT,NEOARISTOTELIANISM|108627TEXT,NEOARISTOTELIANISM|109749TEXT,NEOARISTOTELIANISM|110797TEXT,NEOARISTOTELIANISM|111816TEXT,NEOARISTOTELIANISM|116463TEXT,NEOARISTOTELIANISM|112723TEXT,NEOPLATONISM|144698,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,NEOPLATONISM|107572,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,NEOPLATONISM|106990,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,Neoplatonism|81264,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,NEOPLATONISM|108627,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,NEOPLATONISM|109749,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,Neoplatonism|116079,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,Neoplatonism|129558,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,NEOPLATONISM|110797,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,Neoplatonism|132577,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,Neoplatonism|133428,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,NEOPLATONISM|111816,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,NEOPLATONISM|112723,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMCharlemagneRiquierCONTROVERSYCONTROVERSYText,Nicola Pisano|33043,51710|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Nicola PisanoText,Neoplatonists|144528,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMText,Neoplatonists|107463,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMText,Neoplatonists|108310,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMText,Neoplatonists|109394,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMText,Neoplatonists|110555,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMText,Neoplatonists|111542,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMText,Neoplatonists|112428,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,Neoplatonic|82197,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,Neoplatonic|84056,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,Neoplatonic|116079,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,Neoplatonic|129558,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,Neoplatonic|130113,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,Neoplatonic|134404,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,Neoplatonic|123475,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMTEXT,Napoleon|77048,28556|Classic (1750-1803)| Napoleon BonaparteTEXT,Napoleon|53816,28556|Classic (1750-1803)| Napoleon BonaparteTEXT,Napoleon|58823,28556|Classic (1750-1803)| Napoleon BonaparteTEXT,Napoleon|18872,28556|Classic (1750-1803)| Napoleon BonaparteCONTROVERSY1400)|HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF PHILOSOPHICAL AND THEOLOGICAL THOUGHTText,Notre-Dame-la-Grande|26385,62849|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Notre-Dame-la-GrandeText,Neoplatonist|150922,106990|Middle Ages (400-1400)|NEOPLATONISMText,Neoaristotelian|150922Text,Notre Dame|66588,84895|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Notre Dame| ParisText,Notre Dame de Paris|32763,84895|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Notre Dame| ParisText,Notre Dame|70974,84895|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Notre Dame| ParisText,Notre Dame in Paris|133121,84895|Middle Ages 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<text>TEXT,William the Conqueror|52992,47118|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William the ConquerorTEXT,William the Conqueror|62349,47118|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William the ConquerorTEXT,William the Conqueror|72649,47118|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William the ConquerorTEXT,William the Conqueror|25282,47118|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William the ConquerorTEXT,Wagner|32107,56583|Romantic (1803-1912)|WagnerTEXT,Worcester Fragments|67731,79208|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Worcester FragmentsTEXT,William of Ockham|42536,69478|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William of OckhamTEXT,Wittgenstein|145348,289939|20th Century (1912-1991)|Ludwig WittgensteinTEXT,Wittgenstein|108043,289939|20th Century (1912-1991)|Ludwig WittgensteinTEXT,Wittgenstein|109276,289939|20th Century (1912-1991)|Ludwig WittgensteinTEXT,Wittgenstein|110335,289939|20th Century (1912-1991)|Ludwig WittgensteinTEXT,Wittgenstein|111338,289939|20th Century (1912-1991)|Ludwig WittgensteinTEXT,Wittgenstein|112285,289939|20th Century (1912-1991)|Ludwig WittgensteinTEXT,Wittgenstein|113277,289939|20th Century (1912-1991)|Ludwig WittgensteinTEXT,Wishart|145123,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|George WishartTEXT,Wishart|107988,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|George WishartTEXT,Wishart|108820,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|George WishartTEXT,Wishart|109897,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|George WishartTEXT,Wishart|110890,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|George WishartTEXT,Wishart|112118,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|George WishartTEXT,Wishart|112977,78006|Renaissance (1400-1600)|George WishartTEXT,William of Ockham|145913,114208|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William of OckhamTEXT,William of Ockham|152897,114208|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William of OckhamTEXT,William of Ockham|119087,114208|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William of OckhamTEXT,William of Ockham|119499,114208|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William of OckhamTEXT,William of Ockham|121866,114208|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William of OckhamTEXT,William of Ockham|69478,114208|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William of OckhamTEXT,William of Ockham|114208,114208|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William of OckhamTEXT,William of Ockham|115271,114208|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William of OckhamTEXT,William of Ockham|42536,114208|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William of OckhamTEXT,William of Ockham|125723,114208|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William of OckhamTEXT,Wat Tyler|115184,115184|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Wat TylerTEXT,Waldensians|117258,117258|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE WALDENSESTEXT,Waldensians|120460,117258|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE WALDENSESTEXT,Wagner|32107,56583|Romantic (1803-1912)|RICHARD WAGNERTEXT,Wagner|80263,56583|Romantic (1803-1912)|RICHARD WAGNERText,Windsor Castle|32361,67956|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Windsor CastleTEXT,William the Conqueror|52992,47118|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William The ConquerorText,Westminster Abbey|61647,67956|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Westminster AbbeyText,Wells|67956,99185|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Wells CathedralText,Winchester|67477,98691|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Winchester CathedralText,Worcester|67477,99590|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Worcester CathedralText,Wells Cathedral|99540,99185|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Wells CathedralText,Waldenses|118182,117258|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE WALDENSESText,Westminster Abbey|23111,67956|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Westminster AbbeyText,Wells Cathedral|39583,99185|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Wells Cathedral</text>
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<text>TEXT,Romanesque Buildings|52992,47523|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Romanesque Buildings,Original 1.0 TEXT,Common law|60926,62044|Middle Ages (400-1400)|common law,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Carolinginian organum|53579,54278|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Carolinginian organum,Original 1.0 TEXT,100 Years War|61647,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|100 Years War,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Cluny|62649,21937|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Cluny,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Henry I|72649,62044|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Henry I,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Normans|23433,61647|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Normans,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Domesday Book|25282,61701|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Domesday Book,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Guido d'Arezzo|28121,60233|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Guido d'Arezzo,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Giotto di Bondone|51710,75172|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Giotto di Bondone,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Ars Nova|51877,70705|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Ars Nova,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Richard I|29889,64637|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Richard I,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Abbe Suger|32763,67178|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Abbe Suger,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Cologne Cathedral|32892,57305|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Cologne Cathedral,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Perotin|33721,51877|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Perotin,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Oxford University|35881,65720|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Oxford University,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Intro|70317,84895|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Intro,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Charles V|70705,38188|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Charles V,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Worcester Fragments|78647,79208|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Worcester Fragments,Original 1.0 TEXT,Petrarch|78981,39229|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Petrarch,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,MUSIC|73843,53579|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MUSIC,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,100 Years War|79745,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|100 Years WarTEXT,100 Years War|80122,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|100 Years WarTEXT,Great Gothic Buildings|39990,48857|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Great Gothic Buildings,Original 1.0 TEXT,Giotto|40633,75172|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Giotto,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Illuminated manuscripts|83049,70585|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Illuminated manuscripts,Original TEXT,Worcester Fragments|41169,79208|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Worcester Fragments,Original 1.0 TEXT,Phillippe de Vitry|41595,71707|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Phillippe de Vitry,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Fauvel|83289,71465|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Fauvel,Original 1.0 LinkTEXT,Herzen|108043,151128|Romantic (1803-1912)|Alexander Herzen (1812-1870),Original 2.0 TEXT,Herzen|109276,151128|Romantic (1803-1912)|Alexander Herzen (1812-1870),Original 2.0 TEXT,Herzen|110335,151128|Romantic (1803-1912)|Alexander Herzen (1812-1870),Original 2.0 TEXT,Herzen|111338,151128|Romantic (1803-1912)|Alexander Herzen (1812-1870),Original 2.0 TEXT,Herzen|112285,151128|Romantic (1803-1912)|Alexander Herzen (1812-1870),Original 2.0 TEXT,Herzen|113277,151128|Romantic (1803-1912)|Alexander Herzen (1812-1870),Original 2.0 TEXT,Engels|145348,159884|Romantic (1803-1912)|Friedrich Engels,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,Spinoza|107988,72945|Baroque (1600-1750)|Baruch (or Benedictus de) Spinoza,Original 2.0 TEXT,Spinoza|108820,72945|Baroque (1600-1750)|Baruch (or Benedictus de) Spinoza,Original 2.0 TEXT,Spinoza|109897,72945|Baroque (1600-1750)|Baruch (or Benedictus de) Spinoza,Original 2.0 TEXT,Spinoza|110890,72945|Baroque (1600-1750)|Baruch (or Benedictus de) Spinoza,Original 2.0 TEXT,Spinoza|112118,72945|Baroque (1600-1750)|Baruch (or Benedictus de) Spinoza,Original 2.0 TEXT,Spinoza|112977,72945|Baroque (1600-1750)|Baruch (or Benedictus de) Spinoza,Original 2.0 TEXT,Spinoza|115927,72945|Baroque (1600-1750)|Baruch (or Benedictus de) Spinoza,Original 2.0 TEXT,Leibniz|145123,75477|Baroque (1600-1750)|Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz,Original 2.0 LinkText,Crescas|150922,115690|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Crescas (Hasdai ben Abraham Crescas),No TEXT,Ficino|145123,83760|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Marsilio Ficino,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,Erasmus|107988,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus),Original 2.0 TEXT,Erasmus|108820,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus),Original 2.0 TEXT,Erasmus|109897,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus),Original 2.0 TEXT,Erasmus|110890,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus),Original 2.0 TEXT,Erasmus|112118,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus),Original 2.0 TEXT,Erasmus|112977,86068|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Erasmus (Desiderius Erasmus),Original 2.0 Text,Saadia ben Joseph|150922,130113|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Saadia (or Sa'adya) ben Joseph,No TEXT,HUMANISM|145123,64844|Renaissance (1400-1600)|HUMANISM,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,CATHARI|117101,117101|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE CATHARI OR ALBIGENSIANS,Original 2.0 TEXT,Cathari|118182,117101|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE CATHARI OR ALBIGENSIANS,Original 2.0 TEXT,Cathari|120460,117101|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE CATHARI OR ALBIGENSIANS,Original 2.0 TEXT,ALBIGENSIANS|117101,117101|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE CATHARI OR TEXT,Waldensians|116738,117258|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE WALDENSES,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,Robert Grosseteste|118436,118436|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Robert Grosseteste,Original 2.0 TEXT,Robert Grosseteste|65720,118436|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Robert Grosseteste,Original 2.0 TEXT,Robert Grosseteste|34777,118436|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Robert Grosseteste,Original 2.0 TEXT,Robert Grosseteste|124176,118436|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Robert Grosseteste,Original 2.0 TEXT,Roger Bacon|138557,118555|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Roger Bacon,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,St. Thomas Aquinas|139727,121243|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas Aquinas,Original 2.0 TEXT,St. Thomas Aquinas|116565,121243|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas Aquinas,Original 2.0 TEXT,St. Thomas Aquinas|119087,121243|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas Aquinas,Original 2.0 TEXT,St. Thomas Aquinas|119499,121243|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas Aquinas,Original 2.0 TEXT,St. Thomas Aquinas|120306,121243|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas Aquinas,Original 2.0 TEXT,St. Thomas Aquinas|121243,121243|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas Aquinas,Original 2.0 TEXT,St. Thomas Aquinas|122969,121243|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas Aquinas,Original 2.0 TEXT,St. Thomas Aquinas|65352,121243|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas Aquinas,Original 2.0 TEXT,St. Thomas Aquinas|65720,121243|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas Aquinas,Original 2.0 TEXT,St. Thomas Aquinas|35409,121243|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas Aquinas,Original 2.0 TEXT,St. Thomas Aquinas|125160,121243|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas Aquinas,Original 2.0 TEXT,St. Thomas Aquinas|114208,121243|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Thomas Aquinas,Original 2.0 TEXT,Maimonides|144698,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon),Original TEXT,Maimonides|150922,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon),Original TEXT,Maimonides|139142,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon),Original TEXT,Maimonides|139727,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon),Original TEXT,Maimonides|107572,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon),Original TEXT,Maimonides|108627,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon),Original TEXT,Maimonides|109749,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon),Original TEXT,Maimonides|110797,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon),Original TEXT,Maimonides|134404,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon),Original TEXT,Maimonides|111816,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon),Original TEXT,Maimonides|116565,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon),Original TEXT,Maimonides|120306,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon),Original TEXT,Maimonides|122783,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon),Original TEXT,Maimonides|122969,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon),Original TEXT,Maimonides|123317,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon),Original TEXT,Maimonides|157538,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon),Original TEXT,Maimonides|112723,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon),Original TEXT,Maimonides|113952,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon),Original TEXT,Maimonides|115927,122783|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon),Original TEXT,Averroes|144698,123475|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Averroes (Abu al-Walid Mohammed ibn TEXT,John Scotus Erigena|107572,116079|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John Scotus Erigena,Original 2.0 TEXT,John Scotus Erigena|106990,116079|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John Scotus Erigena,Original 2.0 TEXT,John Scotus Erigena|82197,116079|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John Scotus Erigena,Original 2.0 TEXT,John Scotus Erigena|108627,116079|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John Scotus Erigena,Original 2.0 TEXT,John Scotus Erigena|109749,116079|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John Scotus Erigena,Original 2.0 TEXT,John Scotus Erigena|116079,116079|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John Scotus Erigena,Original 2.0 TEXT,John Scotus Erigena|21937,116079|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John Scotus Erigena,Original 2.0 TEXT,John Scotus Erigena|110797,116079|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John Scotus Erigena,Original 2.0 TEXT,John Scotus Erigena|111816,116079|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John Scotus Erigena,Original 2.0 TEXT,John Scotus Erigena|112723,116079|Middle Ages (400-1400)|John Scotus Erigena,Original 2.0 TEXT,al-Farabi|144698,129558|Middle Ages (400-1400)|al-Farabi (Abu Nasr Alfarabi),Original 2.0 TEXT,al-Farabi|152694,129558|Middle Ages (400-1400)|al-Farabi (Abu Nasr Alfarabi),Original 2.0 TEXT,al-Farabi|107572,129558|Middle Ages (400-1400)|al-Farabi (Abu Nasr Alfarabi),Original 2.0 TEXT,al-Farabi|106990,129558|Middle Ages (400-1400)|al-Farabi (Abu Nasr Alfarabi),Original 2.0 TEXT,al-Farabi|108627,129558|Middle Ages (400-1400)|al-Farabi (Abu Nasr Alfarabi),Original 2.0 TEXT,al-Farabi|109749,129558|Middle Ages (400-1400)|al-Farabi (Abu Nasr Alfarabi),Original 2.0 TEXT,al-Farabi|129558,129558|Middle Ages (400-1400)|al-Farabi (Abu Nasr Alfarabi),Original 2.0 TEXT,al-Farabi|129831,129558|Middle Ages (400-1400)|al-Farabi (Abu Nasr Alfarabi),Original 2.0 TEXT,al-Farabi|110797,129558|Middle Ages (400-1400)|al-Farabi (Abu Nasr Alfarabi),Original 2.0 TEXT,al-Farabi|134404,129558|Middle Ages (400-1400)|al-Farabi (Abu Nasr Alfarabi),Original 2.0 TEXT,al-Farabi|134916,129558|Middle Ages (400-1400)|al-Farabi (Abu Nasr Alfarabi),Original 2.0 TEXT,al-Farabi|111816,129558|Middle Ages (400-1400)|al-Farabi (Abu Nasr Alfarabi),Original 2.0 TEXT,al-Farabi|112723,129558|Middle Ages (400-1400)|al-Farabi (Abu Nasr Alfarabi),Original 2.0 TEXT,the Iconoclastic Controversy|148590,96791|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE ICONOCLASTIC TEXT,St. Jerome|29298,3844|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Jerome (Eusebius Hieronymus),Original 2.0 TEXT,St. Jerome|93290,3844|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Jerome (Eusebius Hieronymus),Original 2.0 TEXT,St. Augustine|106990,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of Hippo,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,Brunelleschi|61429,91075|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Filippo Brunelleschi,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,Michelangelo|104512,116057|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Michelangelo Buonarroti,Original 2.0 TEXT,Titian|73993,123929|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Titian (Tiziano Vecellio),Original 2.0 LinkText,Lindau Gospels|21145,94089|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Lindau Gospels,No Link Notes Entered…Text,St. Pantaleon Cologne|21145,94089|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Pantaleon| Cologne,No Link Text,Iconoclastic Controversy|94710,96791|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE ICONOCLASTIC Text,St. Etienne Caen|26385,96139|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Etienne| Caen,No Link Notes Entered…Text,St. Marks Venice|27022,96640|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Marks| Venice,No Link Notes Text,Pisa Cathedral|27022,97111|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Pisa Cathedral,No Link Notes Entered…Text,St.Nicholas Novgorod|27575,97434|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Nicholas| Novgorod,No Link TEXT,Constantine|82823,54557|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Constantine,Original 2.0 LinkText, Philo|112428,30342|Rome|Philo (Philo Judaeus)Text,Pseudo-Dionysius|107572,82197|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Pseudo-Dionysius,No Link Notes Text,Pseudo-Dionysius|106990,82197|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Pseudo-Dionysius,No Link Notes Text,Pseudo-Dionysius|84056,82197|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Pseudo-Dionysius,No Link Notes Text,Pseudo-Dionysius|108627,82197|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Pseudo-Dionysius,No Link Notes Text,Pseudo-Dionysius|109749,82197|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Pseudo-Dionysius,No Link Notes Text, Pseudo-Dionysius|116079,82197|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Pseudo-Dionysius,No Link Notes Text,Pseudo-Dionysius|110797,82197|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Pseudo-Dionysius,No Link Notes Text,Pseudo-Dionysius|111816,82197|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Pseudo-Dionysius,No Link Notes Text,Pseudo-Dionysius|112723,82197|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Pseudo-Dionysius,No Link Notes Text,Pseudo-Dionysius|144698,82197|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Pseudo-Dionysius,No Link Notes Text,Augustine of Hippo|108627,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of Hippo,No Link Notes Text,Augustine of Hippo|109749,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of Hippo,No Link Notes Text,Augustine of Hippo|116079,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of Hippo,No Link Notes Text,Augustine of Hippo|110797,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of Hippo,No Link Notes Text,Augustine of Hippo|111816,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of Hippo,No Link Notes Text,Augustine of Hippo|112723,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of Hippo,No Link Notes Text,Augustine of Hippo|144698,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of Hippo,No Link Notes Text,St. Augustine of Hippo|95266,29298|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Augustine of Hippo,No Link Text,St. Anselm|108627,131984|Middle Ages (400-1400)|St. Anselm,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Hugh of St. Victor|28446,133715|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Hugh of St. Victor,No Link Notes Text,Hugh of St. Victor|111816,133715|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Hugh of St. Victor,No Link Notes Text,Hugh of St. Victor|116565,133715|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Hugh of St. Victor,No Link Notes Text,Hugh of St. Victor|112723,133715|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Hugh of St. Victor,No Link Notes Text,Hugh of St. Victor|144698,133715|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Hugh of St. Victor,No Link Notes Text,Hugh of St. Victor|107572,133715|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Hugh of St. Victor,No Link Notes Text,Hugh of St. Victor|108627,133715|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Hugh of St. Victor,No Link Notes Text, Hugh of St. Victor|109749,133715|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Hugh of St. Victor,No Link Notes TEXT,Ramus|145123,85490|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Petrus Ramus,Original 2.0 LinkTEXT,Henry IV|131165,66714|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Henry IV,Original 2.0 LinkText,Byzantine mosaics|3419,94710|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Byzantine Mosaics,No Link Notes Text,mosaics|12781,107079|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Byzantine Mosaics,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Mohammed|16834,151107|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Mohammed,No Link Notes Entered…Text,Bayeaux Tapestry|26385,61701|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Bayeaux Tapestry,No Link Notes Text,the grandest of Romanesque buildings|95532,84319|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Cluny Abbey,No Text,Vezeley Cathedral|26385,95532|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Vezeley Cathedral,No Link Notes TEXT,Bible|149610,7039|Biblical History|The Bible,Original 2.0 LinkText,Medieval Religion|126262,145953|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MEDIEVAL RELIGION,No Link Notes Text,Medieval Christianity|126262,146950|Middle Ages (400-1400)|MEDIEVAL CHRISTIANITY,No Link Text,Jean Pucelle|39739,70585|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Jean Pucelle,itTEXT,William the Conqueror|53323,47118|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William The Conqueror,Original TEXT,William the Conqueror|96139,47118|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William The Conqueror,Original TEXT,William The Conqueror|47118,47118|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William The Conqueror,Original TEXT,William The Conqueror|61647,47118|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William The Conqueror,Original TEXT,William the Conqueror|62349,47118|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William The Conqueror,Original TEXT,William the Conqueror|63655,47118|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William The Conqueror,Original TEXT,William the Conqueror|72649,47118|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William The Conqueror,Original TEXT,William the Conqueror|25282,47118|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William The Conqueror,Original TEXT,William the Conqueror|25893,47118|Middle Ages (400-1400)|William The Conqueror,Original Text,Cluny|131637,95532|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Abbey Church of Cluny,itText, Tewkesbury Abbey|67956,104152|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Tewkesbury AbbeyText, the|145913,145953|Middle Ages (400-1400)|theText, Abbey of Cluny|62649,95532|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Abbey Church of Cluny the chant (now known as the cantus firmus),itText,1054|149849,130658|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE GREAT SCHISM I (East/West split)Text,1054|54848,130658|Middle Ages (400-1400)|THE GREAT SCHISM I (East/West split)Text, Solomon|133428,13033|Biblical History|SOLOMON'S EMPIREText, Peasants' Revolt|79745,115184|Middle Ages (400-1400)|peasants' revoltText,1st Lateran Council|23995,131637|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Lateran Council of 1059Text, Henry II|35881,29889|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Henry IIText,100 Years War|3589,49409|Middle Ages (400-1400)|The 100 Years WarText, Philip IV|43023,4129|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Philip IV the FairText, first Christian emperor|54557,16070|Rome|312 - Constantine converted to Christianity (IHS)Text, Alaric|11152,19637|Rome|Alaric</text>
<text>TEXT,Franco of Cologne|33817,64440|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Franco of CologneTEXT,Francesco Petrarca|39229,74987|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Francesco PetrarcaTEXT,Francesco Landini|42019,72013|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Francesco LandiniTEXT,Frege|145348,164374|Romantic (1803-1912)|(Friedrich) Gottlob FregeTEXT,Frege|108043,164374|Romantic (1803-1912)|(Friedrich) Gottlob FregeTEXT,Frege|109276,164374|Romantic (1803-1912)|(Friedrich) Gottlob FregeTEXT,Frege|110335,164374|Romantic (1803-1912)|(Friedrich) Gottlob FregeTEXT,Frege|111338,164374|Romantic (1803-1912)|(Friedrich) Gottlob FregeTEXT,Frege|112285,164374|Romantic (1803-1912)|(Friedrich) Gottlob FregeTEXT,Frege|113277,164374|Romantic (1803-1912)|(Friedrich) Gottlob FregeText,Fourier|145348,149741|Romantic (1803-1912)|(Francois Marie) Charles FourierText,Fourier|108043,149741|Romantic (1803-1912)|(Francois Marie) Charles FourierText,Fourier|109276,149741|Romantic (1803-1912)|(Francois Marie) Charles FourierText,Fourier|110335,149741|Romantic (1803-1912)|(Francois Marie) Charles FourierText,Fourier|111338,149741|Romantic (1803-1912)|(Francois Marie) Charles FourierText,Fourier|112285,149741|Romantic (1803-1912)|(Francois Marie) Charles FourierText,Fourier|113277,149741|Romantic (1803-1912)|(Francois Marie) Charles FourierTEXT,Fichte|145123,59626|Classic (1750-1803)|Johann Gottlieb FichteTEXT,Fichte|107988,59626|Classic (1750-1803)|Johann Gottlieb FichteTEXT,Fichte|108820,59626|Classic (1750-1803)|Johann Gottlieb FichteTEXT,Fichte|109897,59626|Classic (1750-1803)|Johann Gottlieb FichteTEXT,Fichte|110890,59626|Classic (1750-1803)|Johann Gottlieb FichteTEXT,Fichte|112118,59626|Classic (1750-1803)|Johann Gottlieb FichteTEXT,Fichte|112977,59626|Classic (1750-1803)|Johann Gottlieb FichteTEXT,Ficino|145123,83760|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Marsilio FicinoTEXT,Ficino|107988,83760|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Marsilio FicinoTEXT,Ficino|108820,83760|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Marsilio FicinoTEXT,Ficino|109897,83760|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Marsilio FicinoTEXT,Ficino|110890,83760|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Marsilio FicinoTEXT,Ficino|112118,83760|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Marsilio FicinoTEXT,Ficino|112977,83760|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Marsilio FicinoTEXT,Ficino|107988,83760|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Marsilio FicinoTEXT,Ficino|108820,83760|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Marsilio FicinoTEXT,Ficino|109897,83760|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Marsilio FicinoTEXT,Ficino|110890,83760|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Marsilio FicinoTEXT,Ficino|112118,83760|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Marsilio FicinoTEXT,Ficino|112977,83760|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Marsilio FicinoTEXT,Farel|145123,75344|Renaissance (1400-1600)|FarelTEXT,Farel|107988,75344|Renaissance (1400-1600)|FarelTEXT,Farel|108820,75344|Renaissance (1400-1600)|FarelTEXT,Farel|109897,75344|Renaissance (1400-1600)|FarelTEXT,Farel|110890,75344|Renaissance (1400-1600)|FarelTEXT,Farel|112118,75344|Renaissance (1400-1600)|FarelTEXT,Farel|112977,75344|Renaissance (1400-1600)|FarelText,Francesco Traini|40633,103650|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Francesco TrainiText,Fourier|110335,110335|Middle Ages (400-1400)Text,Fourier|110335,149741|Romantic (1803-1912)| FourierText,Francis Bacon|138809,109299|Baroque (1600-1750)|Sir Francis BaconText,Franciscan|65994,120619|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Founder of the Franciscan OrderText,Franciscan|114208,120619|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Founder of the Franciscan OrderText,Franciscan|117980,120619|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Founder of the Franciscan OrderText,Franciscans|118436,120619|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Founder of the Franciscan OrderText,Franciscan|118555,120619|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Founder of the Franciscan OrderText,Franciscan|119499,120619|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Founder of the Franciscan OrderText,Franciscan|121012,120619|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Franciscan OrderText,Florence|57305,101013|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Florence CathedralText,Florence Cathedral|61429,101013|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Florence CathedralText,Florence Cathedral|33043,101013|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Florence CathedralText,Fourth Crusade|117101,64939|Middle Ages (400-1400)|4TH CRUSADEText,Francis Bacon|114453,109299|Baroque (1600-1750)|Sir Francis BaconText,formes fixes|41595,78128|Middle Ages (400-1400)|FORMES FIXESText,first Christian emperor|54557,16070|Rome|r.306-337 - Constantine</text>
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<layer>background</layer>
<id>70</id>
<text>TEXT,University of Paris|36150,65720|Middle Ages (400-1400)|University of ParisText,Utrecht Psalter|20919,9486|Middle Ages (400-1400)|Utrecht PsalterText,unified Russia|97434Text,universals|145913,25535|Greece|universalsText,universals|132691,25535|Greece|universalsText,universals|119886,25535|Greece|universals</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>75</id>
<text>TEXT,Zwingli|145123,74991|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Ulrich ZwingliTEXT,Zwingli|107988,74991|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Ulrich ZwingliTEXT,Zwingli|108820,74991|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Ulrich ZwingliTEXT,Zwingli|109897,74991|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Ulrich ZwingliTEXT,Zwingli|110890,74991|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Ulrich ZwingliTEXT,Zwingli|112118,74991|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Ulrich ZwingliTEXT,Zwingli|112977,74991|Renaissance (1400-1600)|Ulrich ZwingliTEXT,Zeno|144698,20507|Greece|Zeno of EleaTEXT,Zeno|107572,20507|Greece|Zeno of EleaTEXT,Zeno|108627,20507|Greece|Zeno of EleaTEXT,Zeno|109749,20507|Greece|Zeno of EleaTEXT,Zeno|110797,20507|Greece|Zeno of EleaTEXT,Zeno|111816,20507|Greece|Zeno of EleaTEXT,Zeno|112723,20507|Greece|Zeno of EleaTEXT,Zeno of Citium|144698,29577|Greece|Zeno of CitiumTEXT,Zeno of Citium|107572,29577|Greece|Zeno of CitiumTEXT,Zeno of Citium|108627,29577|Greece|Zeno of CitiumTEXT,Zeno of Citium|109749,29577|Greece|Zeno of CitiumTEXT,Zeno of Citium|110797,29577|Greece|Zeno of CitiumTEXT,Zeno of Citium|111816,29577|Greece|Zeno of CitiumTEXT,Zeno of Citium|112723,29577|Greece|Zeno of Citium</text>
<text><span class="style1"></span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Black Death</a></span><span class="style1">" bubonic plague killed about one third of the European population </span></text>
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<content>
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<text>MA6Spain/Miscel</text>
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<name>MA6Spain/Miscel</name>
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card_44397.xml
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<text><span class="style1">ome University founded in 1303"</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Black Death</a></span><span class="style1">" bubonic plague killed about one third of the European population </span></text>
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<text>MA6Italy/Miscel</text>
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card_44201.xml
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<text><span class="style1"></span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Black Death</a></span><span class="style1">" bubonic plague killed about one third of the European population </span></text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
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<text>MA6Netherlands/Miscel</text>
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card_43798.xml
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<text><span class="style1">owenbrau brewery founded in Munich, Bavaria in 1383Vienna University founded 1365Heidelberg University founded 1386"Till Eulenspiegel" was a popular figure (and later the subject of a marvelous tone poem by the late 19th century composer, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Richard Strauss</a></span><span class="style1">)"</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Black Death</a></span><span class="style1">" bubonic plague killed about one-third of the European population </span></text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>192</id>
<text>MA6Germany/Miscel</text>
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card_43620.xml
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<text><span class="style1">uilding of the Bastille52 card playing deck of four suits - 1392"</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Black Death</a></span><span class="style1">" bubonic plague killed about one third of the European population </span></text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
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<text>MA6France/Miscel</text>
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<name>MA6France/Miscel</name>
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card_43366.xml
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<text><span class="style1">illiam of Wykeham 1324-1404 churchman and statesman; chancellor of England from 1367-1371; founded New College, Oxford in 1379 and Winchester College in 1382 (public [really private] school); he supervised the rebuilding of Winchester Cathedral beginning in 1394; sometimes called the "father of the public school system"steel crossbow used c.1370 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dick Whittington c.1358-1423 becomes 1st Lord Mayor of London in 1398"</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Black Death</a></span><span class="style1">" bubonic plague killed about one third of the European population </span></text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
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<text>MA6England/Miscel</text>
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card_160476.xml
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<text><span class="style1">GYPTIbn Khaldun 1332-1406 -- Islamic philosopher of history, historian and pioneer in sociology with his definitive history of Moslem North Africa; his </span><span class="style6">Introduction to History</span><span class="style1"> outlines his cyclical theory of history</span></text>
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<name>MA6Other/Rel/Phil</name>
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card_139267.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text><span class="style1">arsilius of Padua c.1275-c.1342 political theorist and philosopher; in his </span><span class="style6">Defensor Pacis</span><span class="style1"> he argued against the temporal power of the church and developed a secular theory of the state based on the idea of representational government and natural rights; he was excommunicated!Pope Boniface VIII r.1294-1303 -- wanted every ruler subject to the papacy; arrested by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group"> Philip IV</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1285-1314) of France who made Clement V r.1305-1314) Pope at Avignon in 1377 Gregory XI (r.1370-1378) returned to Rome and ended the "Babylonian Captivity"the Great Schism or </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Dual Papacy</a></span><span class="style1"> lasted from 1378-1418Urban VI (r.1378-1389) in Rome and Clement VII (r.1378-1394) anti-pope in Avignonthis schism greatly weakened the church and enabled a great secularization of society to take place </span></text>
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<text>MA6Italy/Rel/Phil</text>
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card_42836.xml
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<text>Nicholas of Autrecourt c.1300-c.1350John Buridan (or Buridanus) c.1300-1358 -- philosopher, commentator on Aristotle and writer on optics; famous for "Buridan's ass" which, when faced with two equally desirable bales of hay, starved to death through indecisionNicholas of Oresme c.1320-1382 -- philosopher, natural scientist and economistJean de Gerson 1363-1429 -- theologian</text>
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card_42536.xml
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">illiam of Ockham</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1285-c.1349 laid the foundations of the separation of church and state</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">John Wycliffe</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1329-1384 - Oxford scholar 1st English translation of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> (incomplete) expelled from Oxford because of his opposition to church doctrine incl. transubstantiation</span></text>
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<content>
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<text>MA6England/Rel/Phil</text>
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card_42407.xml
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">rancesco Landini</a></span><span class="style1"> 1325-1397Jacopo da Bologna fl.1330'sGiovanni da Cascia fl.1330's (= Giovanni da Firenze)Niccolo da Perugia fl.1360's</span></text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>192</id>
<text>MA6Italy/Music</text>
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<name>MA6Italy/Music</name>
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card_41834.xml
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<text><span class="style1">othic motet - secular (even bawdy), polytextual, isorhythmic (isorhythm was the use of a unifying, repeating rhythmic pattern) Roman de </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Fauvel</a></span><span class="style1"> - monophonic (one line of music) and polyphonic (two or more lines of music) compositions based on a long poem attacking the vices of the church Fauvel (a stallion) was an acrostic: F = flattery A = avarice U = villany V = variability E = envy L = loosenessAnon. </span><span class="style6">Mass of Tournai</span><span class="style1"> c.1325 - a composite Mass (unlike Machaut's </span><span class="style6">Messe Notre Dame</span><span class="style1"> )</span></text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>78</id>
<text>Late Gothic - Ars Nova (1300-1400)</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>146</id>
<text>France/Music</text>
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<content>
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<text>MA6France/Music.1</text>
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card_41595.xml
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<text><span class="style1">ante Alighieri 1265-1321 (Florence) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . </span><span class="style6">Divine Comedy</span><span class="style1"> 1321 - one of the first works in Italian (Tuscan dialect) . . . . . . . .Petrarch (</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Francesco Petrarca</a></span><span class="style1">) 1304-1374 (Avignon and Rome) love poems or sonnets to Laura - c.1330 perfected the sonnet 14 lines (8 lines plus 6 lines, each group with its own rhyme scheme) collected and copied manuscripts of ancient authors, esp. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Cicero</a></span><span class="style1"> was the first to use the term "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">humanism</a></span><span class="style1">" </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Giovanni Boccaccio</a></span><span class="style1"> 1313-1375 </span><span class="style6">Decameron</span><span class="style1"> c.1353 - 1st major prose work in Italian - anti-clerical</span></text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
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<text>MA6Italy/Lit</text>
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card_39008.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">eoffrey Chaucer</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1342-1400 </span><span class="style6">Canterbury Tales</span><span class="style1"> c.1387William Langland c.1330-c.1400 </span><span class="style6">The Vision of Piers Plowman</span><span class="style1"> 1362"Robin Hood" appears in English popular literature c.1376Sir Gawain and the Green Knight c.1320 - tales of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">chivalry</a></span><span class="style1"></span></text>
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<text>MA6England/Lit</text>
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card_38648.xml
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<text>CHINAMing Dynasty 1368-1644 - replaces Mongol rule (Manchu Dynasty replaced it in 1644)TURKEYTamerlane (Timur the Lame) 1336-1405 Turkish conqueror of Mesopotania, Afganistan, India, Syria, Persia (Iran), Iraq, and Russia (to Moscow)</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>192</id>
<text>MA6Other/History</text>
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<name>MA6Other/History</name>
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card_38329.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text><span class="style1">APAL STATES - ruled by the Pope Cola di Rienzi (1313-1354) murdered in Rome in 1354 last tribune (and subject of the opera by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Richard Wagner</a></span><span class="style1"> in the 19th century) Pope Boniface VIII r.1294-1303 wanted every ruler subject to the papacy arrested by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Philip IV</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1285-1314) of France who made Clement V r.1305-1314) Pope at Avignon in 1377 Gregory XI (r.1370-1378) returned to Rome and ended the "Babylonian Captivity" the Great Schism or </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Dual Papacy</a></span><span class="style1"> lasted from 1378-1418 Urban VI (r.1378-1389) in Rome and Clement VII (r.1378-1394) anti-pope in Avignon this schism greatly weakened the church and enabled a great secularization of society to take place </span></text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
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<text>Late Gothic - Ars Nova (1300-1400)</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>146</id>
<text>Italy/History</text>
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<content>
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<text>MA6Italy/History.1</text>
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card_37959.xml
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<text><span class="style1">taly was divided into many city statesMilan - ruled by the ViscontiFlorence - ruled by the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Medici</a></span><span class="style1"> (Medici bank founded in 1397)Venice - ruled by Doges</span></text>
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<id>192</id>
<text>MA6Italy/History</text>
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card_35727.xml
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">hilip the Bold</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1363-1404 Duke of Burgundy, married the Countess of Flanders and created the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Netherlands</a></span><span class="style1"> - an important new force to be reckoned withFlanders: cap. BrugesBurgundy: cap. Dijon </span></text>
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<id>192</id>
<text>MA6Netherlands/History</text>
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card_26210.xml
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<text><span class="style1">ANSEATIC LEAGUE founded in 1300 - a Baltic trading alliance of merchants of c. 100 towns throughout Germany and the Scandinavian countries(Rulers of Various Houses)Henry VII of Luxemburg r.1308-1313</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Ludwig IV</a></span><span class="style1"> of Bavaria r.1314-1347Charles IV of Luxemburg r.1347-1378Wencelas of Luxemburg r.1378-1400Rupert of the Palatinate r.1400-1410</span></text>
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<content>
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<id>192</id>
<text>MA6Germany/History</text>
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card_80122.xml
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<script>on mouseDownvideoPopUpend mouseDownCharles V - the King of France and his council,</script>
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<id>2</id>
<text><span class="style1">ALOIS LINE Philip VI r.1328-1350 John II r.1350-1364 Charles V the Wise r.1364-1380 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Charles VI the Foolish r.1380-1422 insane, lost at Agincourt 1415 during </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">the 100 Years War</a></span><span class="style1"> 1337-1453 - A series of wars between England and France over </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Edward III</a></span><span class="style1">'s (r.1327- 1377) rejection of Philip IV's right to be King of France. The Battle of Orleans ended it. </span></text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>78</id>
<text>Late Gothic - Ars Nova (1300-1400)</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>146</id>
<text>France/History</text>
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<content>
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<text>MA6France/History.3</text>
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card_4129.xml
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<text>CAPET LINE Philip IV the Fair r.1285-1314 consolidated royal power over the church "Babylonian Captivity" - Philip IV arrested Pope Boniface VIII and made Clement V the Pope at Avignon and refused to pay tithes to Rome Louis X r.1314-1316 - son of Philip the Fair Philip V r.1316-1322 - son of Philip the Fair Charles IV r.1322-1328 - son of Philip the Fair</text>
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<text>MA6France/History</text>
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card_79745.xml
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<script>on mouseDownvideoPopUpend mouseDownRichard II gives Aquitane to John of Gaunt,The execution of Richard II's Councillors - 1388,</script>
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<content>
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<id>2</id>
<text><span class="style1"> Richard II r.1377-1399 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group"> Peasants' Revolt</a></span><span class="style1"> of 1381 forced by Parliament to abdicate and then murdered by Henry of Bolingbroke, John of Gaunt's (1340-1399) son who then became </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Henry IV</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1397-1413) (Robert Stuart, King of the Scots) r.1371-1390 first Stuart monarch of Scotland - the Stuarts would eventually succeed to the throne of England under </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">James I</a></span><span class="style1"> when </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Elizabeth I</a></span><span class="style1"> died childless (or "without issue" as they say in royal parlance). </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">100 Years War</a></span><span class="style1"> - 1337-1453 A series of wars between France and England over Edward III's rejection of Philip IV's (r.1285-1314) right to be King of France. The </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Battle of Orleans</a></span><span class="style1"> ended it. </span></text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>78</id>
<text>Late Gothic - Ars Nova (1300-1400)</text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>146</id>
<text>England/History</text>
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<content>
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<text>MA6England/History.1</text>
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card_3589.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text><span class="style1"> PLANTAGENETS Edward I r.1272-1307 - </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Model Parliament</a></span><span class="style1"> Edward II r.1307-1327 in 1314 he lost the Battle of Bannockburn to "Robert the Bruce" (r.1306-1329) and the Scots - deposed by Parliament and murdered most horribly at Berkeley Castle with the intrigue of his wife and her lover </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Edward III</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1327-1377 Parliament divided into House of Lords (Peers - earls and barons) and House of Commons (knights and burgesses) established the Order of the Garter in 1348 (Edward the Black Prince 1330-1376) - son of Edward III fought for England in </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">100 Years War</a></span><span class="style1"> father of Richard II</span></text>
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<text>MA6England/History</text>
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card_79208.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text><span class="style1">he Worcester Fragments (14th century), named after the English Cathedral in which they were found, are the first pieces of music that utilize a systematic use of the triad -- the modern chord built in 3rds (e.g. C-E-G, F-A-C etc.) The gentle, soft, modern sound of the Worcester Fragments could easily be confused with later Renaissance music. It was the English composer </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">John Dunstable</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.1385-1453) who, in the retinue of the Duke of Bedford, regent in France, introduced the triad to the continent. The importance of the triad in western music cannot be overemphasized.</span></text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
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<text>Late Gothic - Ars Nova (1300-1400)</text>
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<content>
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<text>Proto Humanism /Historical Essays</text>
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<text>Proto Humanism.7</text>
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card_75172.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">iotto di Bondone</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.1266-1337), a Florentine whose glorious frescoes can be seen in the Arena Chapel in Padua (completed by 1313), was the first artist to paint more human life-like figures -- figures with much more of a sense of bulk and body weight under the clothing than in the earlier works of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Cimabue</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.1240-1302) or </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Duccio</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.1255-1318). Giotto displays more of a sense of space -- not perspective, which would have to wait for the Renaissance Florentine, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Masaccio</a></span><span class="style1"> (1401-1428). Giotto's paintings have simpler, larger forms and are less cluttered than those of his contemporaries. </span></text>
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<content>
<layer>background</layer>
<id>192</id>
<text>Proto Humanism.6</text>
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<name>Proto Humanism.6</name>
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card_74987.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text><span class="style1">t the end of the Gothic era there were proto-humanistic thrusts in literature, art and music. Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca) 1304-1374, the Italian poet, was the first to use the term humanism to express the spirit of intellectual freedom by which man asserted his independence from the authority of the weakened church. Petrarch is best known for his Canzoniere c.1330, a collection of 366 Italian poems whose central theme is his love for Laura. Little is known of her; she died of the "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Black Death</a></span><span class="style1">" in 1348. When not thinking about his beloved Laura, Petrarch edited classical texts, including those of Livy, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Cicero</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Seneca</a></span><span class="style1">.</span></text>
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<content>
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<text>Proto Humanism.5</text>
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card_74528.xml
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<!DOCTYPE card PUBLIC "-//Apple, Inc.//DTD card V 2.0//EN" "" >
<text><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">IMPRESSIONISM</a></span><span class="style1"> fl.1880-1912 at the end of the Romantic era foreshadowed the abandonment of traditional styles in the modern era in ART the quasi-representational style of Monet, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Manet</a></span><span class="style1"> et. al. MUSIC the revolutionary harmonic and structural experiments of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Debussy</a></span><span class="style1"> LITERATURE the symbolist works of Mallarme and Maeterlinck</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Humanism</a></span><span class="style1"> ("Humanism" and "Renaissance" are almost interchangeable) was a movement that centered on man, his world and his history rather than on speculations about God. Humanism is associated with the rediscovery of the Greco-Roman world, especially Greek literature and philosophy. (See Renaissance </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Intro</a></span><span class="style1"> to Period)</span></text>
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<text>Proto Humanism.4</text>
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<name>Proto Humanism.4</name>
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<text><span class="style1"> THE </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">ROCOCO</a></span><span class="style1"> fl.1720-1750 at the end of the Baroque foreshadowed the less dynamic style of the Classical era in ART the playful paintings of Boucher MUSIC the highly ornamented works of F. Couperin LITERATURE the epic-in-miniature quality of Pope's The Rape of the Lock THE </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">STURM UND DRANG</a></span><span class="style1"> ("Storm and Stress") fl.1780-1803 at the end of the Classical era foreshadowed the huge, heroic sense of drama and contrast of the Romantic era in ART the large, dramatic paintings of David MUSIC the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">titanic</a></span><span class="style1"> explosiveness of Beethoven LITERATURE the monumental length of Goethe's Faust</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> PROTO </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">HUMANISM</a></span><span class="style1"> fl.1370-1400 at the end of the Gothic era foreshadowed the new emphasis in the Renaissance on man and his world in ART </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Giotto</a></span><span class="style1"> MUSIC the Worcester Fragments LITERATURE Petrarch </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">MANNERISM</a></span><span class="style1"> fl.1570-1600 at the end of the Renaissance foreshadowed the emphasis on the dramatic in the Baroque in ART the dramatic paintings of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Titian</a></span><span class="style1"> MUSIC the flamboyant brass writing of G. Gabrieli LITERATURE the theatrical tragedies of late Shakespeare</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">very major era in western civilization, at least from the Middle Ages on, has had an avant garde or proto thrust at its end. These "proto" movements contain the seeds of the new age that follows. The ROMANESQUE fl.1000-1150 at the end of the Early Middle Ages foreshadowed the extravagance of the Gothic in </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">ART</a></span><span class="style1"> the monumental size of Romanesque cathedrals </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">MUSIC</a></span><span class="style1"> the totally independent upper voice in Romanesque organum LITERATURE the epic size of the Chanson de Roland (See Medieval IV General Comments on Art and Music and Essay "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Romanesque Buildings</a></span><span class="style1">") </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">hilip the Good's army captured Joan of Arc, the "Maid of Orleans" (c.1412-1431), who was having visions of a French victory and thus endowing the French cause with great fervor, and handed her over to the English. The English, in charge of much of France, tried her as a "false soothsayer" and burned her at the stake in Rouen in 1431.Glorious English victories aside, however, the 100 Years War ended with a decisive French victory at the Battle of Orleans in 1453 (the same year as the fall of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Constantinople</a></span><span class="style1">).One side benefit of the war was the introduction of the triad (the modern chord built in 3rds) to the continent by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">John Dunstable</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.1385-1453), a composer in the retinue of the Duke of Bedford who ruled France as Regent for Henry VI.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he English won most of the battles (even though they lost the war). At the famous Battle of Agincourt in 1415 Henry V's (r.1413-1422) English archers decisively defeated the insane Charles VI's (r.1330-1422) French army. The French lost about 10,000 men; the English, about 300.Meanwhile, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Philip the Good</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1419-1467), a Valois Duke of Burgundy and ruler of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">the Netherlands</a></span><span class="style1">, rather than siding with his French Valois cousin </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Charles VII</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1422-1461), sided instead with his English brother-in-law </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Henry VI</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1422-1461) who also reigned as King of France with John of Lancaster, Duke of Bedford (1389-1435) as his regent. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">aged on and off from 1337 to 1453, the so-called 100 Years War between England and France began over the King of England's claim to the French throne. When Charles IV (r.1322-1328) of France died without a direct heir his cousin Phillip VI (r.1328-1350), who was the nephew of Charles IV's father </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Philip IV</a></span><span class="style1">, became King of France, the first in the House of Valois. However, Edward III (r.1327-1377), </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">King of England</a></span><span class="style1">, was a grandson of Philip IV of France and did in fact have a more direct and legitimate claim to the French throne. (English royalty continued to use the titles King and Queen of France until 1802!) So, Edward III went to war to claim what he thought to be his other crown.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">y 1350 it had ravaged Germany, Scandinavia and Poland and, it is estimated, had killed off a third of the population of Western Europe (c.33,000,000 people.) It recurred almost every ten years and lasted for three centuries, eventually racking up an estimated toll of c. 75,000,000 lives.Poor sanitation helped the spread of the disease caused by bacilli which invade the blood and lymph glands and cause dark patches to appear on the skin. Fever, vomiting and death usually occur within three days.Giovanni Boccaccio, the great Florentine poet, wrote his </span><span class="style6">Decameron</span><span class="style1"> (c. 1353) as a collection of 100 tales told by people fleeing to the country to escape the Black Death, which was rampant in most large towns.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he Black Death, so-called because of its transmission by infected fleas on the black rat and because the tongues of its victims turned black, and also known as bubonic plague, originated in the Russian Crimean port of Kaffa in 1346. Rat and flea infested ships spread the plague like a prairie fire to the port cities of Europe and by 1348 it was rampant in Constantinople, Sicily, Genoa, Provence and England. (</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Petrarch</a></span><span class="style1">'s sweetheart, Laura, caught it and died in 1348.) </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">rescas was the first European thinker to suggest the idea of an infinite universe. In his writings, which often stress the limitations of human reason, Crescas dealt with what he believed to be the ultimate purpose of Torah. He suggested four possibilities: 1) moral perfection 2) bodily perfection 3) intellectual perfection 4) perfection of the soulCrescas' argument for the third possibility was the longest in order to refute the Aristotelians, including </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Maimonides</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Levi ben Gershom</a></span><span class="style1">, while in the fourth possibility he presented his own views. Crescas argued that love and fear of God led to perfection of the soul, a view he supported by Biblical quotations, citations from the rabbis and philosophical arguments. Crescas' written works include: </span><span class="style6">Refutation of the Dogmas of Christians,</span><span class="style1"> written to counteract Christian missionary work among Jews and </span><span class="style6">Lamp of God,</span><span class="style1"> intended to be in two parts, </span><span class="style6">Lamp of the Commandment</span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style6">Light of the Lord</span><span class="style1"> (1410). Only the second part was completed and is the best known of Crescas's works, having an influence on </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Pico Della Mirandola</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Spinoza</a></span><span class="style1">.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">rescas (Hasdai ben Abraham Crescas)</span><span class="style1"> 1340-c.1410 Spanish philosopher, poet, Talmudic scholar and Jewish communal leader. Crescas was active in Spain when the Jews were under persecution by the first Spanish </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Inquisition</a></span><span class="style1">. A merchant and leader of the Jewish community in Barcelona, he was imprisoned on false charges in 1367 but was soon released. In 1383 he was part of a delegation to Pedro IV (r.1336-1387), King of Aragon, where privileges for Jews were negotiated. Under Juan I of Aragon (r.1387-1395), Crescas became a member of the court with the titles "member of the royal household" and Crown Rabbi. He moved to Saragossa where he became the rabbi with the special right to invoke the ban of excommunication and to punish and prosecute informers against Jews. In 1391 severe persecution of Jews once again broke out. Crescas was protected but his son was martyred in Barcelona, as letters sent to protect his family arrived too late. Crescas then devoted his energy toward rebuilding the Jewish community in Spain with royal support. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">icholas of Autrecourt</span><span class="style1"> c.1300-c.1350Philosopher and theologian who developed the medieval school of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">scepticism</a></span><span class="style1"> to its logical extreme. Nicholas of Autrecourt's views were eventually condemned by the pope in 1346 and his writings were publicly burned. He was a graduate of the Sorbonne where he studied the works of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Peter Lombard</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">William of Ockham</a></span><span class="style1">. Nicholas rejected the Aristotelian notion of a single intellect for all men and argued against the possibility for a rational proof for the existence of God. His extreme </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">nominalism</a></span><span class="style1">, influenced by Ockham, led him to postulate that the only knowledge we have of an object had to be experienced through the senses. He agreed with such early atomists as </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Epicurus</a></span><span class="style1"> that the universe is composed of indivisible atoms. Although Nicholas also claimed to believe in traditional Christian dogma, his ecclesiastical critics were not persuaded by his argument that faith may assent to propositions reason rejects. After his condemnation in 1340 for heresy by Pope Benedict XII (r.1334-1342) in Avignon, Nicholas was required to burn his letters and major work </span><span class="style6">The Order of Executive Demands.</span><span class="style1"> He then retired to a quiet life of teaching.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ycliffe also wrote a number of sermons for his supporters or "poor priests" (called Lollards or mumblers, a term of derision), street preachers who continued their preaching after his death, surviving to the time of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Reformation</a></span><span class="style1">, even though severely persecuted. Wycliffe's rebelliousness and popularity caused him to be wrongly blamed for the "peasants' revolt" of 1381. Led by Wat Tyler, a group of peasants seized Rochester castle in Kent and, joined by another group of rebels from Essex, marched on London, occupied the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Tower of London</a></span><span class="style1"> and executed Simon of Sudbury, Chancellor of England and Archbishop of Canterbury and Sir Robert Hales, Treasurer of England. On 14 June 1381 </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Richard II</a></span><span class="style1"> agreed to their demands for trade, poll tax and rand rental reforms. On 15 June Wat Tyler was killed by the mayor of London, Sir William Walworth, and the peasants were dispersed. By September the government was firmly in control and Richard II withdrew his promises.In 1415, after Wycliffe's death, the Council of Constance condemned his works as heretical and ordered his body to be dug up, burned and cast into the river Swift. The sentence was carried out in 1428.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n his </span><span class="style6">On Being, On Divine Lordship</span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style6">On Civil Lordship</span><span class="style1"> Wycliffe rather naively argued that church properties, if occupied by ecclesiastics living in "mortal sin," could be seized by civil authorities. He also naively argued that all wicked civil authorities forfeited their right to rule. His insistence on the right of civil authority to exercise control over the clergy earned him the enmity of the bishops and Pope </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Gregory XI</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1370-1378) who removed Wycliffe from his priestly duties and urged his imprisonment. However, he won the support of John of Gaunt and the widow of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Black Prince</a></span><span class="style1"> during several attempts by church authorities to bring him to trial. Embittered by the Great Schism II and its effects, Wycliffe became more radical and turned away from politics to theological writings, attacking papal authority, enforced confession, penances, indulgences and the doctrine of transubstantiation, asserting the right of every man to interpret the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> for himself. His other writings included </span><span class="style6">On the Truth of the Holy Scriptures, On the Church, On the Power of the Pope</span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style6">On the Eucharist.</span><span class="style1"> He left Oxford in 1381 and worked on his </span><span class="style6">Summa de ente, Opus Evangelicum </span><span class="style1">and</span><span class="style6"> Trialogus,</span><span class="style1"> all summations of his views. He also produced numerous pamphlets written in English. He began an English translation of the Vulgate (Latin Bible), a project completed after his death by a group of his disciples at Oxford and Lutterworth, his last parish. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ckham published most of his works while at Oxford, Avignon and Munich. He is also known in the term "Ockham's Razor," a concept that influenced </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Francis Bacon</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">John Locke</a></span><span class="style1">. "Ockham's Razor" is the principle that "Entities are not to be multiplied beyond necessity" -- i.e., things not known to exist (universals for Ockham) should not be postulated as existing and, given two adequate theories, the simpler is always correct. Ockham's most important works include: </span><span class="style6">Commentary on the "Sentences" of </span><span class="style9"><a href="#" class="group">Peter Lombard</a></span><span class="style6">,</span><span class="style1"> commentaries on the works of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1">, a major treatise on logic and writings on politics.</span><span class="style5">John Wycliffe</span><span class="style1"> c.1329-1384Philosopher, theologian, church reformer, and one of the first advocates of an English translation of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1">. At Oxford Wycliffe was known as a brilliant lecturer in logic and metaphysics and became the master of Balliol College in 1360. He received the doctorate in theology in 1372. He also served as a parish rector. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">illiam of Ockham</span><span class="style1"> c.1285-c.1349Nominalist philosopher, theologian, political writer and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Franciscan</a></span><span class="style1"> monk. Born in Ockham, Surrey (England), Ockham studied and lectured at Oxford and joined the Franciscan order. He was a pupil, and later, rival of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">John Duns Scotus</a></span><span class="style1">. Ockham, like </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Roger Bacon</a></span><span class="style1"> and Duns Scotus, but unlike </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Thomas Aquinas</a></span><span class="style1">, separated theology from philosophy. His anti-realist nominalism (i.e., the view that only particular things [</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1">'s "matter"] are real and universal ideas or "somethings" [Aristotle's "form"] are merely names or abstract terms having no real existence) caused him to be summoned to Avignon on charges of heresy in 1324 by Pope John XXII (r.1316-1334). (Ockham held that any knowledge of God had to come through revelation.) His Franciscan defence of ecclesiastical poverty and condemnation of papal claims to civil authority did not sit well with his Holiness either. He was excommunicated and fled to Bavaria, where the Holy Roman Emperor Ludwig IV (r.1314-1347) rather liked his political views and granted him asylum. Ockham probably died of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Black Death</a></span><span class="style1"> in Munich.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ith the shift in the thirteenth century from a Moslem to a Christian setting, Jewish philosophy began to use Hebrew rather than Arabic. The first task was to translate earlier writings from Arabic to Hebrew, in the course of which Jewish philosophers produced new commentaries, summaries, treatises and books from these earlier sources. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Averroes</a></span><span class="style1"> dominated Levi ben Gershom's thinking. Gershom was the most important of these European-based medieval Jewish philosophers. His own philosophical views can be found in his commentaries on Averroes. Though showing respect for each, he freely criticized both </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Maimonides</a></span><span class="style1"> and Averroes, His method was that identified with the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">scholastics</a></span><span class="style1">, i.e., attention to detail and rigorous scholarly effort. He reviewed all past scholarship, offered support or criticism of these earlier views, then added his own considerable knowledge and expertise. In disagreeing with Maimonides on knowledge, he took a firm stand on the side of freedom of the human will, a persistent philosophic issue. He was also interested in astronomy (he constructed astronomical tables from his own observations), mathematics, arithmetic, geometry and trigonometry. Additional works include </span><span class="style6">The Book of the Correct Syllogism</span><span class="style1"> in which he corrects what he perceives to be errors in Aristotle. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ATE GOTHIC PHILOSOPHERS AND THEOLOGIANS (1300-1400)(For a more comprehensive listing see "REL/PHIL" grid for each country)</span><span class="style5">Levi ben Gershom (or Gersonides)</span><span class="style1"> 1288-1344 French Jewish religious philosopher, physician, mathematician, astronomer, poet, Talmudic scholar, and biblical commentator. Levi ben Gershom lived in Bagnol, Orange and for a time Avignon, but little more is known of his personal life. Among his religious works are a Talmudic treatise and commentaries on the Torah or </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Pentateuch</a></span><span class="style1"> (the first five books of the Hebrew </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1">) and the book of Job. His commentary on the Pentateuch was the first book ever printed in Hebrew, published in 1480 in Mantua. Gershom always sought to show that his views were consistent with the Torah. In his major theological work, </span><span class="style6">Milhamoth Adonai</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style6">(The Wars of the Lord )</span><span class="style1"> (1329) he discusses six major topics: 1) the immortality of the soul; 2) prediction and prophecy; 3) divine knowledge; 4) divine providence; 5) celestial bodies and their relation to God; 6) creation. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">see </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Philosophical/Theological Summary</a></span><span class="style1">)(see also </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Medieval Philosophy and Religion</a></span><span class="style1">)THE GREAT SCHISM II (Dual papacy -- 1378-1417) The period of time in the Roman Catholic Church when there were rival popes, those at Avignon, France and those at Rome (and Pisa) in Italy. There were also two Colleges of Cardinals. Each pope claimed to be the true successor to St. Peter. At one point there were three popes! This scandal lasted for almost forty years until the issues were resolved at the Council of Constance (1414-1417). Pope John XXIII (anti-pope r.1410-1415), in a line inaugurated at the Council of Pisa, was deposed, Pope Gregory XII (r.1406-1415), successor to Urban VI, abdicated and Pope Benedict XIII (anti-pope r.1394-1415), successor to Clement VI of Avignon, was deposed. The Great Schism II ended with the election of Martin V (r.1417-1431) as pope in 1417.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">HYTHM see discussion of Philippe de Vitry's treatise </span><span class="style6">Ars Nova</span><span class="style1"> above compositions were often organized by means of isorhythm -- a unifying, repeating rhythmic pattern MELODY more melodic independence or freedom of lines more lyrical melodic style in Italy, more angular in FranceTEXT Italian vernacular became developed and was used in secular music the poetry of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Dante Alighieri</a></span><span class="style1"> (1265-1321) and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Petrarch</a></span><span class="style1"> (Francesco Petrarca) (1304-1374) helped this development </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ORM fewer compositions based on chant more freely composed compositions forms still determined by the texts compositions were often organized by means of isorhythm -- a unifying, repeating rhythmic patternSONORITY more concentration on the lyrical treatment of the voice in Italy (e.g., </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Landini</a></span><span class="style1">) some very primitive keyboard musicHARMONY more use of imitation and canon (as in "Row, row, row your boat") more use of 3rds and 6ths, but the triad is NOT the norm (except in the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Worcester Fragments</a></span><span class="style1">) </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> accompanied secular songs in the FORMES FIXES (fixed forms in set patterns) FRANCE ITALY Ballade Rondeau Virelai = </span><span class="style7"> </span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style7"> </span><span class="style1">Ballata Chace = Caccia (like a canonic madrigal) Canzona Madrigal (a musical setting of a text that has 7 or 11 syllable lines) dances with ad hoc instrumentation (no particular instruments were specified by the composer)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">TALY Francesco Landini 1325-1397 organist at San Lorenzo in Florence with </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Machaut</a></span><span class="style1">, one of the two greatest Late Gothic composers wrote 133 ballate, 11 madrigals and 2 cacce less contrapuntally complex than Machaut more modern sounding than Machaut owing to his extensive use of 3rds and 6ths much more lyrical or vocally oriented than Machaut (a typically Italianate trait) Jacopo da Bologna fl.1330 Giovanni da Cascia (= Giovanni da Firenze) fl. 1330 Niccolo da Perugia fl. 1360</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> Anon. </span><span class="style6">Mass of Tournai</span><span class="style1"> c.1325 an incomplete, composite Mass (i.e., more than one composer) Phillip de Vitry's (1291-1361) treatise </span><span class="style6">Ars Nova</span><span class="style1"> c.1325 introduced . . . . . . . . . tempus imperfectum or duple subdivisions of the beat in addition to the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">tempus perfectum</a></span><span class="style1"> of the Early Gothic Ars Antiqua. Rhythmic notation of individual notes (which we take for granted) was now possible, allowing for much more rhythmic freedom, variety and complexity (esp. syncopation or stress off the beat).</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> ANON. (a very prolific composer!) </span><span class="style6">Le Roman de Fauvel</span><span class="style1"> Monophonic (one line) and polyphonic (more than one line) compositions based on a long poem by Gervais du Bus written between 1310 and 1314 in which he attacked abuses prevalent in the church. "Fauvel" is an acrostic. F</span><span class="style7"> </span><span class="style1"> = Flatterie (Flattery) A = Avarice U = Vilenie (Villany) V </span><span class="style7"> </span><span class="style1">= Variete (Variability) E</span><span class="style7"> </span><span class="style1">= Envie (Envy) L</span><span class="style7"> </span><span class="style1">= Lachete (Looseness)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> Machaut also wrote in all the secular formes fixes (see below) of his day and is credited with inventing the artistically accompanied solo song (i.e., a song with an accompaniment that is written out rather than improvised as with the troubadours et. al.) more contrapuntally complex than Landini, Machaut is the "father of structuralism" (e.g., his Rondeau, "Ma fin est mon commencement" [My end is my beginning] is a musical </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">palindrome</a></span><span class="style1">, the same forwards and backwards) less use of 3rds and 6ths than Landini (thus, less modern sounding) more rhythmically complicated than Landini less lyrical than Landini (quite typical for a Northerner) a master of isorhythmic technique (i.e., the use of a unifying, repeating rhythmic pattern) </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">Machaut, continued) his Messe </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Notre Dame</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.1364) was the first polyphonic Mass by one composer the "Ordinary" or invariable part of a Mass consists of the following sections: Kyrie Gloria </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Credo</a></span><span class="style1"> (= the Nicene Creed) Sanctus and Benedictus Agnus Dei</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">usical styles grew more varied in the High Gothic, or, as it is known to music historians, the Ars Nova, after a treatise of that name by Philippe de Vitry (1291-1361) written c.1325. Machaut and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Landini</a></span><span class="style1"> (see below) were clearly the most important 14th-century composers.FRANCE Guillame de Machaut (c.1300-1377) the greatest Late Gothic composer served the French court of Charles V (secular music) and also served </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Reims Cathedral</a></span><span class="style1"> from 1337-1377 (sacred music) 1st composer to cultivate all the leading genres of his day, both sacred and secular</span></text>
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<text>Manuscript illumination has survived the ravages of time, whereas much panel painting has not. Manuscript illumination was not considered the the most important art of the time. Panel painters paid higher taxes, which means they earned higher wages for their art. When books started to be collected as objects of art, late in the 14th century, illuminators earned their exalted place in the arts hierarchy. In many cases the illuminators would work for a court as valets de chambre, painting objects other than books. The artist's role was as a craftsman — an illuminator might be asked to paint a carriage, a banner or a saddle. Oftentimes these other tasks were glorified in miniature, in an illuminated manuscript, leaving an historical record of the jobs of the artist. In the last quarter of the 14th century, Charles V showed a great interest in the small format, therefore illuminated manuscripts enjoyed another revival. </text>
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<text><span class="style5">rvieto Cathedral</span><span class="style1">Orvieto is notable for its heavily sculpted facade. The frescoes for the cathedral were done by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Luca Signorelli</a></span><span class="style1">, a contemporary of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Leonardo</a></span><span class="style1">. Signorelli studied </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1"> and Leonardo. The fresco</span><span class="style6"> Damned Consigned to Hell</span><span class="style1"> is composed of complexly intertwined nudes and horrible demons. Angels wear full armour and prevent the damned from rising to Heaven. </span><span class="style5">Illuminated Manuscripts</span><span class="style1"></span><span class="style6">The Cloisters Apocalypse</span><span class="style1"> (c. 1300) </span><span class="style6">Tacuinum Sanitatis </span><span class="style1"> (c. 1370) — German, French and Italian treatise on health, herbology and other folk remedies of the day.</span><span class="style6">The Naples </span><span class="style9"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.1370) was produced when Charles III of Durazzo was in power. </span><span class="style6">The Visconti Hours</span><span class="style1"> (c.1370-1390) is a truly glorious and colourful book. Books of Hours were prayer books that replaced psalters. The heart of a Book of Hours is the Office of the Blessed Virgin, passages to be read in private, 8 times during the day. The Books of Hours included a calendar of feast days and holidays "followed by psalms, prayers, litanies to the saints, and offices of the Dead and that of the Holy Cross."</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">ilan Cathedral</span><span class="style1">Milan Cathedral is the largest Italian Gothic church. Northern masons were called upon to build the cathedral in the northern style. It remains one of the largest of all Christian churches. At the time, a controversy arose over the approach to the architecture. One of the French architects accused the Italian architects of proceeding without "theory," claiming that "practice is meaningless without theory." The use of interior sculpture is extensive and the stained glass windows are mammoth in scale. The exterior of the cathedral was embellished with pinnacles in the 18th and 19th centuries. </span><span class="style5">Santa Croce, Florence</span><span class="style1">Santa Croce has a simple but large interior which is timber-roofed. Octagonal columns, pointed arches, foliate capitals and great openness characterize it. Originally, vaulting was not planned. The choir is attributed to </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Arnolfo di Cambio</a></span><span class="style1">, who adapted the French Gothic principles to suit the divergent Italian taste of the day. A completely new facade was added in the 19th century.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">ewkesbury Abbey </span><span class="style1">Tewkesbury is a brilliant variation on the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Norman</a></span><span class="style1"> theme. It is considered a prime example of West Country architecture. The orthodox Norman thick walls were replaced by huge drum piers above which are squat openings which give access to a passage, the old clerestory wall passage. It is a 3-story elevation, a new concept of a wall. The choir was remodelled in the 14th century. </span><span class="style5">St. Sebaldus, Nuremberg</span><span class="style1">In the late 14th century, St. Sebaldus was built on the hall church scheme with surface ornament that suggested a single space. The church has aisles of equal height and no clerestory (the upper story of a building pierced by windows, usually above the aisles, letting in light to the nave of main hall). Patterned windows and vaults were derived from English architecture. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">xeter Cathedral </span><span class="style1">Exeter was started before 1280 and took 80 years to complete. The design was fixed from the start and only superficial detail changed. It shows magnificent all-over surface pattern. Its eleven vault ribs are very thick, as are the piers and arch mouldings. The building appears to be two-storied and "forest-like." The masonry gives the sensation of being deep in a grove of tall trees. Windows are set back behind a wall passage. </span><span class="style5">Hereford Cathedral </span><span class="style1">Hereford was started c. 1110 and is similar to German and Italian churches. The central apse rose less than half way up the eastern wall. In the 1330s, the chapter house (now destroyed) was vaulted with fans. The nave vaults' ribs emerged from cells at the points where they reached the walls. </span><span class="style5">Gloucester Cathedral</span><span class="style1">The choir was constructed c.1337. The piers utilized thin rectilinear panels and became known as "English perpendicular style."</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">imone Martini </span><span class="style1"> (c.1284-1344)Martini, from Avignon, was a pupil of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Duccio</a></span><span class="style1">. He was Sienese by birth and his </span><span class="style6">Maesta</span><span class="style1"> fresco in Siena shows his debt to Duccio, although Martini's is French Gothic in its fashionable decorative sense. His </span><span class="style6">Annunciation</span><span class="style1"> is a condensed cathedral facade with Gothic arches, embellished in gold. It is considered one of the highest achievements in Sienese Gothic art. The artist settled in Avignon permanently in 1339, at which time it was the papal seat. </span><span class="style5">Francesco Traini </span><span class="style1"> (fl.1321-1370) The frescoes he painted in the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Campo Santo</a></span><span class="style1"> in Pisa represent the </span><span class="style6">Triumph of Death.</span><span class="style1"> They reflect the universal doom following the bubonic plague (</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Black Death</a></span><span class="style1">) in Europe. The subject matter of the day has here been translated into narrative painting for a public place. </span><span class="style5">Giovanni da Milano</span><span class="style1"> (fl.1365-1380) This Milanese artist developed a new kind of image — a Pieta (pity and piety). Religious imagery flourished after the tragic years of the Black Death. Art was meant to excite the emotions and to show that Christ shared in man's suffering. His work is sensitive and lyrical. He was trained in Lombardy and represents Lombard influences combined with Sienese charm. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">ietro Lorenzetti</span><span class="style1"> (c.1280-c.1348) A Sienese artist, Pietro is responsible for the </span><span class="style6">Birth of the Virgin</span><span class="style1"> in the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Cathedral of Siena</a></span><span class="style1">. He achieves illusion by utilizing </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Giotto</a></span><span class="style1">'s figurative technique. The picture exists as a little stage: that which is painted and that which is carved are not obvious. He manipulates the imagery with a sense of drama in the Byzantine tradition. Recently, art historians have attributed to Lorenzetti the frescoes in the Orsini Chapel (lower church of San Francesco at Assisi). He and his pupils completed these magnificent paintings arranged in three levels. Lorenzetti himself painted 5 of the 11 scenes in the Passion cycle, from the </span><span class="style6">Crucifixion</span><span class="style1"> to the </span><span class="style6">Decent into Limbo. </span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style5">Ambrogio Lorenzetti</span><span class="style1"> (c.1290-1348) Brother of Pietro, Ambrogio followed the same influences. He is considered to be less dramatic than his brother, but more elegant. Most of his works are still in Siena. The frescoes, </span><span class="style6">Good Government</span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style6">Bad Government</span><span class="style1"> have a high point of view that encompasses a tremendous scope of scenery and people. The ominous grey background reminds us that it is still the Middle Ages with the plague (</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Black Death</a></span><span class="style1">) that ravaged the population of Europe in 1348, the year the brothers died (of the plague?)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">iotto was also a master of fresco (i.e., painting on wet plaster in sections). The Arena Chapel in Padua contains Giotto's frescoes illustrating the life of the Virgin and the life of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Christ</a></span><span class="style1">. The naturalistic style of the figures was a tremendous leap forward. However, there was still an ambiguity of space — a different scale, more of a symbolic space than a real space. The narrative is referred to as "pictorial drama"; Giotto understood the intricacies of the human condition and was able to translate these successfully into complex pictures such as </span><span class="style6">The Raising of Lazarus</span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style6">The Lamentation.</span><span class="style1"> Giotto appeals to our interest in humanity. His first major work, the Arena Chapel, was commissioned by a money lender, Enrico Scrovegni. It is one of the first instances where the nouveau riche of the day were commissioning works of art. This trend was to have a great impact in later eras, leading to the secularization of subject matter. Giotto's other great works were commissioned by bankers. His influence has extended far beyond his time, having an impact on European Academicism, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Raphael</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Poussin</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">David</a></span><span class="style1"> and many styles of the twentieth century. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">is scenes from the life of Christ are considered more elaborate and complete than those in Giotto's Arena Chapel. Flowing and massed drapery are Duccio's specialities. He did not accept Giotto's columnar figures or dense cubic rocks. Duccio was successful at interpreting the sweep of a distant landscape, a contribution from the Sienese painters to art history. </span><span class="style5">Giotto di Bondone </span><span class="style1">(c. 1266-1337) A pupil of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Cimabue</a></span><span class="style1">, Giotto employed the High Gothic style to become a master of the painted drama. As did Cimabue, Giotto broke with the Byzantine style. He is considered the first superstar of Italian painting, receiving many impressive accolades during his lifetime. He is credited with reviving the art of painting in Italy, which had lain dormant due to many invasions. Giotto mastered the uses of light, weight and mass as did the Classical artists and thus left the Byzantine tradition far behind. His painting represents the French sculpture of the day, sensitively modelled to emphasise the dimensionality of the figures rather than flattening them as did the Byzantines. He positioned the figures in space to create strong dynamic movements through the picture plane. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">roderlam was a Fleming, hence a realist. His work bears some relation to Italian tendencies in the stylised rock formations in the </span><span class="style6">Flight from Egypt.</span><span class="style1"> He contributed the exterior painted wings for a complex gilded and carved altarpiece for Chartreuse de Champmol. He exhibited his gift for rendering in a graceful style that borrowed drapery from Sluter, architectural interiors from Italian painters and the rocky landscape of Duccio. The use of architectural elements to push the figures into deeper space is a device favoured by northern painters and illuminators, exhibiting a strong propensity toward perspective movement. Broderlam is considered to be a Northern exponent of an International style. His painted panels became a viable art form, showing a departure from stained glass and illuminated manuscripts. He favoured an almost Eastern use of intricate shapes and patterns with rich color. The tendency attributed to Broderlam is "perspective naturalism." </span><span class="style5">Duccio di Buoninsegna </span><span class="style1">(c.1255-1318)Sienese painters carried the Byzantine tradition into the 14th century and Duccio was the premier painter of his day. The altarpiece </span><span class="style6">Madonna in Majesty,</span><span class="style1"> over 13 feet in length, was begun in 1308 for the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Cathedral in Siena</a></span><span class="style1">. It was carried in an overblown procession, lavish in its intent, from the artist's studio to the cathedral. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">eter Parler</span><span class="style1"> (1330-1399) Parler was an architect, the second architect of Prague Cathedral. He studied as a mason in England, but came from a family of Swabian masons who worked in Bohemia and southern Germany in the l4th century and exercised influence on the Gothic style in these regions. The vaults at Prague Cathedral show his awareness of English style. He also executed some of the sculptural work in Prague Cathedral. He was responsible for the Charles Bridge over the Vltava as well as for the Choir of St. Bartholomew's Church at Kolin. </span><span class="style5">Melchior Broderlam </span><span class="style1"> (c.1381-1409)Broderlam was a Netherlandish painter who was a contemporary of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Sluter</a></span><span class="style1">. He entered the service of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Philip the Bold</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1378 working at the ducal Castle of Hesdin at Ypres, his home town. He was not a miniaturist, in that conceptually his work was quite sculptural and large. His </span><span class="style6">Annunciation and Visitation and Presentation and Flight into Egypt </span><span class="style1"> (1394-1399) show a sense of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">chiaroscuro</a></span><span class="style1"> and atmosphere. The color is more than decorative, giving sculptural form to the figures in space. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">ean Maloue</span><span class="style1">l (fl.1385-1410) Malouel was the uncle of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Limbourg brothers</a></span><span class="style1">. As a painter, he finished Sluter's statues in Chartreuse de Champmol in lifelike colour. One of the prophets in the </span><span class="style6">Well of Moses</span><span class="style1"> was supplied with bronze spectacles. He was painter to </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Philip the Bold</a></span><span class="style1"> and the Burgundian house until his death. His style of painting had tremendous emotive qualities, and was considered an idealised Italian style. </span><span class="style5">Claus Sluter</span><span class="style1"> (fl. 1380-1400) Revolutionary sculptor from Haarlem, c. late 14th century. Sluter came to Dijon in 1385 to work on Chartreuse de Champmol. The portal sculptures of Chartreuse are full of dramatic event. He planned the </span><span class="style6">Well of Moses</span><span class="style1"> for this building. His sculpture is vibrantly naturalistic and dispensed with decorative canopies over the </span><span class="style6">Well of Moses.</span><span class="style1"> He foreshadows </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Michelangelo</a></span><span class="style1">'s horned </span><span class="style6">Moses</span><span class="style1"> with the double beard. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">ean Pucelle</span><span class="style1"> (c.1300-c.1355)Pucelle, trained as a miniaturist, was influenced by 14th-century Italian painting. He was an innovator in the sense that he introduced the Italian ideas of space and iconography, as in his </span><span class="style6">Belleville Breviary.</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style6">The Hours of Jeanne d'Evreux</span><span class="style1"> are housed in the Cloisters of the Metropolitan Museum in New York City. He used the Italianate idea of spatial boxes in perspective with bottoms, tops and sides. There is also a French feeling of intense elegance to his draperies and luminous surfaces. Pucelle revitalized the late Gothic Parisian school. Like </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Honore</a></span><span class="style1">, he utilized the full page. Border spaces were delightfully embellished with drolleries (i.e., humorous devices to lighten the mood of many religious subjects). As an innovator, Pucelle is also responsible for the use of the "bas-de-page" technique which enjoyed a long history in manuscript illumination. This technique used the calendar pages of the breviaries, obviously on the bottom of the pages. He made use of the tops of the pages as well, where the months are illustrated as landscapes without figures. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he rise of capitalism began with the flourishing of industry (e.g., the Lowenbrau brewery opened in Bavaria in 1383), trade (the Hanseatic League was formed in 1300) and banking (e.g., the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Medici</a></span><span class="style1"> banks). Towns began to flourish and assume more importance as the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">manorial</a></span><span class="style1"> system broke down.Statesmen, great ruling families (e.g., the Medici in Florence and Visconti in Milan) and nationalism replaced the weakened church as sources of power. War became a professional activity -- the steel crossbow was first used c.1370. (See Essay "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">The 100 Years War</a></span><span class="style1">") The fourteenth century also saw the horrendous "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Black Death</a></span><span class="style1">" kill off over one third of its population. (See also Medieval V </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Intro</a></span><span class="style1"> for more on the Gothic era.)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">rose now rivaled poetry and bawdy literature (e.g. some of Geoffrey Chaucer 's (c.1342-1400) </span><span class="style6">Canterbury Tales</span><span class="style1"> c.1387 and part of Giovanni Boccaccio 's (1313-1375) </span><span class="style6">Decameron</span><span class="style1"> c.1353 could only appear in X-rated movies) and many new secular musical forms including some truly filthy motets and attacks on the church (in </span><span class="style6">Le Roman de Fauvel</span><span class="style1"> ) were typical of the age.Gothic architecture (See Medieval V Essay "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Great Gothic Buildings</a></span><span class="style1">") and illuminated manuscripts became even more elaborate and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Proto Humanism</a></span><span class="style1"> flourished in literature (Petrarch [1304-1374]), art (</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Giotto</a></span><span class="style1"> [c.1266-1337]) and music (in the Worcester Fragments). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he High Gothic, known to music historians as the Ars Nova (after the c.1325 treatise of that name by Philippe de Vitry [1291-1361]) and also referred to as the Trecento (thirteen-hundreds) saw the vast power of the church weakened by internal struggles -- even to the point of having anti-popes (in Avignon) during the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Great Schism</a></span><span class="style1"> or </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Dual Papacy</a></span><span class="style1"> from 1378 to 1418. Out of this weakness arose a vast secularization of society. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">William of Ockham</a></span><span class="style1"> (1290-1349) laid the intellectual and ideological foundation of the separation of church and state.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">xford University</a></span><span class="style1"> founded c.1167 when</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group"> Henry II</a></span><span class="style1"> ordered English scholars to return from Paris</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Cambridge University</a></span><span class="style1"> founded c.1209 when a group of discontented Oxonians moved to Cambridge Glass windows appear in private houses in 1180Tiles replace thatched and wooden roofs in London houses in 1212Coal mined for the 1st time in Newcastle in 1233Linen 1st manufactured in England in 12531st toll roads in England c.1267</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">bn David (Abraham ben David-Hallevi) c.1100-c.1180 the first Jewish Aristotelian philosopher; wrote </span><span class="style6">The Exalted Faith</span><span class="style1"> (1160) and </span><span class="style6"> Book of Tradition</span><span class="style1"> (1161)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">t. Dominic</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1170-1221 - founded the Dominican preaching order</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Francis of Assisi</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1181-1226 a mystic - founded the Franciscan Order - vows of poverty his wonderful </span><span class="style6">Canticle of the Sun</span><span class="style1"> was written in 1224</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Bonaventure</a></span><span class="style1"> 1221-1274</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Thomas Aquinas</a></span><span class="style1"> 1225-1274 Thomism said that one must use reason in addition to revelation he married philosophy and religion Aquinas felt that beauty could be defined objectively as "the splendor of order" with "proportion, integrity and clarity" </span><span class="style6">Summa Theologica</span><span class="style1"> c.1270 - attempted to prove the existence of God</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">ranco of Cologne</a></span><span class="style1"> fl.1250-1280 - his treatise </span><span class="style6">Ars cantus mensurabilis</span><span class="style1"> introduced the new rhythmic modes - triple meter (tempus perfectum) - this is referred to as Franconian notation</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">t. Godric songs"</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Sumer is icumen in</a></span><span class="style1">" - the first round or canon</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ampanile (bell tower) of Pisa built in 1174</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Florence Cathedral</a></span><span class="style1">Siena CathedralAbbey Church of Fossanova</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Cimabue</a></span><span class="style1"> (Bencivieni di Pepo) c.1240-1302 in Florence the first important painter of the entire Middle Ages</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Nicola Pisano</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1225-c.1284 - sculptor in Pisa Giovanni Pisano c.1250-c.1320 - sculptor in Pisa</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Arnolfo di Cambio</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1232-c.1300 - architect and sculptor in FlorenceCoppo di Marcovaldo fl.1260's(See also General Comments on </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Art</a></span><span class="style1">)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">innesingers (poets and musicians) Gottfried von Strasbourg - Tristan c.1210 Wolfram von Eschenbach - Parzival 1203 Neidhart von Reuenthal Heinrich von Meissen Tannhauser and Walther von der Vogelweide, both minnesingers, actually participated in a singing contest held at the Wartburg in 1207 (as told by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Wagner</a></span><span class="style1"> in Die Meistersinger) Wizlau von Ruegen c.1266-1325 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .</span><span class="style6">Lohengrin</span><span class="style1"> -- Anon. 1285</span><span class="style6">Nibelungenlied</span><span class="style1"> -- Anon. c.1190Goliards - "Carmina Burana"</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">hretien de Troyes fl.1170 </span><span class="style6">Lancelot</span><span class="style1"> (1170), </span><span class="style6">Percival</span><span class="style1"> (c.1175) 1st account of the Round TableGuillaume de Lorris (c.1200-c.1240) and Jean de Meun (Jean Chopinel - c.1240-1300) - </span><span class="style6">The Romance of the Rose</span><span class="style1"> c.1230, greatest poem of the 13th centuryRutebeuf fl.1250-1280</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">aladin</a></span><span class="style1"> 1137-1193 greatest Moslem leader (Sultan of Egypt and Syria) constant struggles with Byzantium captured Jerusalem in 1187 signed peace treaty in 1192 with Richard I allowing Christians free access to Jerusalem</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">yzantium was considerably weakened owing to a constant struggle with the Moslem world and because of western influences, especially by the "Latinization" which occurred during the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">4th Crusade</a></span><span class="style1"> (1201-1204). Owing to this weakness, Byzantine culture moved to the "third Rome", Moscow. (Alexander Nevsky r.1220-1263, Prince and later Grand Duke of Novgorod, was the Russian victor over the Swedes in 1240. </span><span class="style6">Alexander Nevsky</span><span class="style1"> is also an important motion picture by the great Russian director, Sergei Eisenstein and composer </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Sergei Prokofiev</a></span><span class="style1">.)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ubject to HRE until 1254 - then divided into many city states until 1861Pope Adrian IV r.1154-1159 - Nicholas Breakspear, the only English pope, gave Ireland to </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Henry II</a></span><span class="style1"> of England thus beginning the long conflictPope Innocent III r.1198-1216 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">the greatest and most political of all medieval popes</a></span><span class="style1"> highly centralized the power of the church that it would never know again</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">OHENSTAUFEN LINE - HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE Frederick I Barbarossa r.1152-1190 "Red Beard" created the Duchy of Austria in 1156 drowned in a river in Asia Minor on the 3rd Crusade</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">HABSBURG</a></span><span class="style1"> LINE--in HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Rudolf I</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1273-1291 founder of the Habsburg dynasty crowned at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">APET LINE Louis VII r.1137-1180 married Eleanor of Aquitaine (she later married </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Henry II</a></span><span class="style1"> of England and became the mother of two kings, Richard I Lionheart and John) Philip II r.1180-1223 enlarged France by fourfold went on the 3rd Crusade with Frederick Barbarossa and Richard Lionheart but was a coward feigning illness Louis VIII r.1223-1226 St. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Louis IX</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1226-1270 deeply pious, built the Sainte Chapelle battled with Rome over money for wars died of the plague on the last (8th) crusade Philip III r.1270</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">dward I r.1272-1307 son of Henry III 1295 </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Model Parliament</a></span><span class="style1"> King had to go to Parliament to carry out laws tried to conquer Scotland by appointing John Balliol (r.1292-1296) as King of Scotland but he was repelled by Robert "the Bruce" (r.1306-1329)SCOTLAND Margaret r.1286-1290 John Balliol r.1292-1296 Robert I "the Bruce" r.1306-1329</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ohn r.1199-1216 son of Henry II and Eleanor </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Magna Carta</a></span><span class="style1"> signed at Runnymead in 1215 in a concession to the barons, the King is now subject to common law battle with Pope </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Innocent III</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1198-1216) over the appointment of Stephen Langton (c.1165-1228),the pope's choice, as Archbishop of Canterbury</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Henry III</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1216-1272 son of John development of Parliament with the Provisions of Oxford in 1258 15 noblemen virtually ran the machinery of government Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester (c.1208-1265), was the leader of the barons</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">LANTAGENETSHenry II r.1154-1189 - nephew of Henry I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . married </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Eleanor of Aquitaine</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1122-1204 (she had been married to Louis VII of France) </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Adrian IV</a></span><span class="style1"> (Nicholas Breakspear) r.1154-1159, the only English pope, gave Ireland to Henry II (the start of the English/Irish troubles) had St. Thomas Becket c.1118-1170, Chancellor and Archbishop of Canterbury, murdered in 1170 (Becket was canonized in 1173)</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Richard I</a></span><span class="style1"> "Lionheart" r.1189-1199 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . son of Henry II and Eleanor motto "Dieu et mon droit" is still the Royal Family's motto made a treaty with Moslem leader </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Saladin</a></span><span class="style1"> (1137-1193) on 3rd Crusade that allowed Christians free access to Jerusalem captured by Leopold, Duke of Austria (r.1198-1230), on his return from the 3rd Crusade</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">or a fascinating explanation of this mathematical phenomenon see H.E. Huntley's </span><span class="style6">The Divine Proportion,</span><span class="style1"> New York: Dover Publications, 1970.If you ever design a house with a 30-foot living room and do not make it 18.5 feet wide (30 x .618) Euclid, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Pythagoras</a></span><span class="style1">, Callicrates, Ictinus, Phidias, Fibonacci, Kepler, drone bees and maybe even God would wonder why you defied the "natural order."</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">The dimensions and proportions of the Parthenon fit almost exactly into a "Golden Rectangle.") Luca Pacioli's </span><span class="style6">De Divina Proportione</span><span class="style1"> of 1509 was illustrated by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Leonardo da Vinci</a></span><span class="style1">. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Johannes Kepler</a></span><span class="style1"> (1571-1630), the German astonomer, also called the .618 ratio the "Divine Proportion."That Euclid's .618 "golden cut" or "golden section" ratio should be the same as the Fibonacci ratio which finds its resonance in the natural world, testifies to the incredible importance of this number, both in natural science and in art, architecture, sculpture, music and esthetics.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">uclid</a></span><span class="style1"> (fl. c. 300 B.C.) solved the problem of how to find the "golden section" of a straight line -- i.e., how to divide a line so that the whole is to the larger section as the larger section is to the smaller. He discovered that 1 : .618 as .618 : .382. Throughout history, from the Greeks to the 20th century, the "Golden Section", "Golden Number" or "Golden ratio" has engaged great minds. The 5th century B.C. architects Callicrates and Ictinus used it in designing the Parthenon as did the contemporary Greek sculptor, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Phidias</a></span><span class="style1"> in his statuary. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">uch disparate elements as nautilus shells, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Bach</a></span><span class="style1"> fugues, pine cones, compositions by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Mozart</a></span><span class="style1">, drone bees, snail shells, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Leonardo da Vinci</a></span><span class="style1"> sketches, the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Parthenon</a></span><span class="style1">, works of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Bartok</a></span><span class="style1">, cell generations, sunflowers, multiple light reflections, hydrogen atoms, the breeding habits of rabbits, phyllotaxis (the arrangement of leaves on the stems of plants), the daisy, etc., etc. all have something to do with the Fibonacci series.When, beginning with the number 21, the last number in the series is divided into the preceding number, the result is ALWAYS .618 ad infinitum!8√∑13 = .614, 13√∑21 = .619, 21√∑34 = .618, 34√∑55 = .618, 55√∑89 = .618... </span></text>
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<text>Leonardo Fibonacci (c.1175-c.1250), the early Gothic mathematician (also known as Leonardo of Pisa) who, in his Liber Abaci of 1202, introduced to Europe the Arabic numerals which he learned from the Mohammedans of Barbary, is best known today for the Fibonacci series. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89,144, 233 ...etc.The last number in the series is always the sum of the two preceding numbers. Scientists have discovered that the numbers of the series find enormous resonances in the natural world. </text>
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<text><span class="style1">ome French Gothic cathedrals </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Denis</a></span><span class="style1"> - </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Laon</a></span><span class="style1"> - </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Notre Dame de Paris</a></span><span class="style1"> - </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Amiens</a></span><span class="style1"> - </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Reims</a></span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Chartres</a></span><span class="style1"> - universally regarded as having the world's most beautiful stained glass </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">La Sainte-Chapelle</a></span><span class="style1"> - almost a "glass house"In Italy, Germany and Austria, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Florence</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Milan</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Orvieto</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Siena</a></span><span class="style1"> Cathedrals, the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Abbey Church of Fossanova</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Santa Croce</a></span><span class="style1"> (Florence), the Palazzo Vecchio (Florence), Cologne Cathedral, St. Stephen's Cathedral (Vienna) and St. Sebald (Nuremberg) are glorious examples of the universal western style. (The relics of "We Three Kings of Orient Are" are to be found in the "Three Kings Chapel" in </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Cologne Cathedral</a></span><span class="style1">.)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Wells</a></span><span class="style1"> - the enormous screen or facade at the west end is magnificent </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">York Minster</a></span><span class="style1"> - the east window is the largest single area of medieval stained glass in the world (72' x 31') Westminster Abbey - the scene of every coronation from William the Conqueror to the present Westminster Hall </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group"> Tewkesbury Abbey</a></span><span class="style1"> Windsor Castle - still the home of the British royal family - the Windsors Caernavon Castle in Wales</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">High Gothic ribbed vaults tend to have elaborate carved and gilded bosses where the ribs are joined.)The word "cathedral" implies that the local bishop has his seat or throne (cathedra) there. Thus, Westminster Abbey is not a cathedral, even though it looks like the best of them. The Bishop of London has his throne in St. Paul's Cathedral (</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Sir Christopher Wren</a></span><span class="style1">'s great Baroque masterpiece).Some English Gothic cathedrals and buildings Canterbury </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Chichester</a></span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style7"> </span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Winchester</a></span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Lincoln</a></span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Norwich</a></span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Peterborough</a></span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Salisbury</a></span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style7"> </span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Worcester</a></span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Gloucester</a></span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Exeter</a></span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Hereford</a></span><span class="style1"> </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">hile </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Durham Cathedral</a></span><span class="style1"> was the first to have a stone ribbed vaulted ceiling, it was the Abbe Suger (c.1081-1151) who deserves the credit for "getting it all together" so to speak. His great </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Denis</a></span><span class="style1"> in Paris (begun c. 1140) was the first building in the world to exhibit all of the Gothic features described above.High Gothic style is often difficult to distinguish from early Gothic owing to the long time the buildings took to complete. However, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Canterbury Cathedral</a></span><span class="style1"> is an ideal place to capture the flavor of both eras. The choir at the east end (the altar or choir end is always referred to as the east end no matter which way it actually faces) was built in the thirteenth century and the much higher, more elaborately decorated nave in the fourteenth. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he Gothic style is marked by huge, flamboyant, extravagant buildings (mostly cathedrals) with stone ribbed vaulted ceilings, pointed arches (replacing the rounded </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Roman arches</a></span><span class="style1"> used in the Romanesque era), huge stained glass windows, tall spires or towers, large statues or sculpture on the facades of the buildings, enormous height and, often, flying buttresses to bolster the walls weakened by the inclusion of so much glass. The sculpture or statues on the facades now have more normal proportions and are more ordered and less crowded, often standing out as separate entities.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">hen we speak of great Gothic buildings, we enter the realm of the greatest, most extravagant buildings the world has ever known. The term "Gothic," originally a pejorative used during the Renaissance to describe an architectural style regarded as so barbaric it could only be ascribed to the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Goths</a></span><span class="style1"> (fifth century pillagers of Rome), is now a term that sends chills of appreciation and awe down the spines of anyone who has ever seen Canterbury Cathedral, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Chartres</a></span><span class="style1"> or </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Notre Dame</a></span><span class="style1">.</span></text>
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<text>The Model Parliament, created in 1295 under Henry III's son Edward I (r.1272-1307), stipulated that the king had to go to parliament to carry out the laws. So powerful did parliament become that it even deposed Edward I's son, Edward II (r.1307-1327), who was then brutally murdered at Berkeley Castle under the intrigue of his wife and her lover.Under Edward II's son, Edward III (r.1327-1377), parliament was divided in to a House of Lords made up of peers of the realm (then earls and barons) and a House of Comons (then made up of knights and burgesses). This arrangement of a House of Lords (now consisting of those with inherited or life peerages created by the monarch) and House of Commons (now consisting of elected members of parliament) has continued to the present day.</text>
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<text><span class="style1">he parliamentary idea, which had its origins in the writings of the philosopher </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">John of Salisbury</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.1115-1180), really began under the Plantagenet Henry III (r.1216-1272) with the Provisions of Oxford of 1258. Under these provisions fifteen noblemen virtually ran the machinery of government with Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester (c.1208-1265), as leader of the barons. Henry III's father, John (r.1199-1216) had been forced by his barons to sign Magna Carta at Runnymeade in 1215. From then on in England, give or take a despot or two, the king was subject to the law.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">homas Aquinas who held that "beauty is the splendor of order," also felt that beauty could be defined objectively -- i.e., all things of beauty had "proportion, integrity (unity) and clarity."Roger Bacon (c.1211-1294), an Oxford </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Franciscan</a></span><span class="style1">, is regarded as the greatest scientist of his time. He, like Aquinas, believed strongly in empirical observation and felt that science was a natural basis for religion.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ther important scholastics were Duns Scotus (1266-1308), the Scottish theologian, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">John of Salisbury</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.1115-1180) and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Robert Grosseteste</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.1175-1253), the first Chancellor of Oxford University (c.1215). Scholasticism also saw the rise of the University of Paris (c.1150), Oxford University (c.1167) and Cambridge University (c.1209).St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), esteemed as the greatest medieval doctor of the church, studied the Aristotelian method with </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Albertus Magnus</a></span><span class="style1"> (1197-1280) in Cologne and then returned to Naples where in 1273 he wrote the last of his enormously influential </span><span class="style6">Summa theologica.</span><span class="style1"> Thomism, named after him, said that one must use reason in addition to revelation to discern truth, thus creating a marriage of theology and philosophy. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he Gothic mind felt, as did </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Plato</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Pythagoras</a></span><span class="style1">, that the vast universe was a form of measurable harmony and that geometry and harmony were divine activities carried on by God, the "Great Architect." (Many illustrations in contemporary illuminated manuscripts depict God with a protractor designing the world.) The two greatest early Gothic scholastic philosophers, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Thomas Aquinas</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.1225-1274) and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Roger Bacon</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.1214-1294), laid the foundations of later Renaissance scientific thought. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Scholasticism</a></span><span class="style1"> was an Aristotelian intellectual system which held that logic or reason were proper methods of inquiry, that all truth was not revealed by God. (In modern neurological terms they held that truth was not just right-brained but could be discerned by investigation, logic and the reasoning of the left brain.) </span></text>
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<text>6TH CRUSADE 1228-1229 successful - Frederick II HRE crowned himself King of Jerusalem in 1229 on their return the crusaders imported leprosy to Europe7TH CRUSADE 1248-1250 a moderate success (St.) Louis IX of France was taken prisoner and then ransomed8TH CRUSADE (last) 1270 a failure (St.) Louis IX died of the plague in Tunis and the Moslems retained control of the Holy Land, with the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem settling in Cyprus</text>
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<text><span class="style1">TH CRUSADE 1202-1204 ordered by Pope </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Innocent III</a></span><span class="style1"> but he later excommunicated the leaders (the Venetians and the Doge) set out for Egypt and Jerusalem but was </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">diverted to Constantinople</a></span><span class="style1"> (owing to Venetian merchant greed) and took the city by storm -- it sacked and "Latinized" Byzantium, from which it never recovered and Byzantine culture moved to Moscow, the "third Rome"CHILDREN'S CRUSADE 1212 30,000 French and German children - a failure5TH CRUSADE 1218-1221 - a failure the last crusade in which the papacy was actively involved</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">crusades</a></span><span class="style1"> were holy wars waged to reclaim the holy places in Jerusalem from Moslem control so that Christians could go there on pilgrimages. Other cities on the way from western Europe to the Holy Land also had to be reclaimed (e.g., Nicea, Antioch). The Holy Land would no sooner be in Christian hands than the Moslems would attack and win it back, thus necessitating several crusades. 3RD CRUSADE 1189-1191 Philip II of France (a coward, feigned illness during crusade) Frederick Barbarosa drowned in a river in Asia Minor Richard I Lionheart signed a treaty with Saladin (the greatest Moslem ruler who captured Jerusalem in 1187) allowing Christians access to Jerusalem (John ruled as Regent in his absence) [This story is dramatically told in Sir Walter Scott's </span><span class="style6">Talisman.</span><span class="style1"> ]</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n politics Averroes followed </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Plato</a></span><span class="style1"> as did most of his fellow Aristotelians. The ideal state came into being under a prophet-legislator. The prophetic law should speak to all classes, which Averroes divided into three groups: the rulers, the dialecticians and the masses. Each group was to be instructed on its own level. In addition to his commentaries on Aristotle, and Plato's </span><span class="style6">Republic,</span><span class="style1"> Averroes' major works include: </span><span class="style6">On the Unification of Philosophy and Religion</span><span class="style1"> (c.1160 - his major work in religion); </span><span class="style6">General Medicine</span><span class="style1"> (c.1169); and </span><span class="style6">The Incoherence of the Incoherence</span><span class="style1"> (c.1180 - his refutation of al-Ghazali). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">verroes (Abu al-Walid Mohammed ibn Ahmad ibn Rushd)</span><span class="style1"> 1126-1198 The greatest Islamic Aristotelian, Averroes was born in Cordova, Spain to a family of Islamic jurists. Trained in Islamic law, theology, philosophy, medicine and mathematics, he lived in Marrakesh, Seville and Cordova. His life was varied, controversial, yet very productive. He wrote thirty-eight commentaries (available in Arabic, Hebrew and Latin and covering philosophy, medicine and religion), the most famous of which are on the works of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1">. Called "The Commentator," he was known to other Western thinkers as an Aristotelian, though his Aristotelianism, like that of most Arabic philosophers, is tinged with </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Neoplatonic</a></span><span class="style1"> ideas (e.g., Averroes believed that God, the Prime Mover, was entirely separated from the world). Disagreeing on many points with </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Avicenna</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">al-Ghazali</a></span><span class="style1">, Averroes aimed at clarifying and interpreting Aristotle properly. He developed positions on cosmology, creation, proofs for the existence of God and the theory of knowledge or his doctrine of the intellect. Known as the "unity of the intellect," his view was subsequently much debated. Averroes held that every individual participates in the one universal intellect which exists for the whole human race. (Thus, he denied personal immortality.)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">s for the creation of the world, Maimonides states that the arguments for creation are stronger than those against creation, and that the act of creation is supported by Scripture. Prophecy and miracles are therefore more tenable, given that God created the world. He argued that the prophet receives from God certain ideas, such as with Moses who brought the Law (whose function is political) and subsequent prophets who admonished Jews to keep the Law. Evil and providence (God at work in the world) are also discussed as well as the purpose of the Law. In addition to the </span><span class="style6">Guide,</span><span class="style1"> Maimonides also wrote a </span><span class="style6">Commentary on the Mishnah</span><span class="style1"> (or Luminary) (1168), a basic rabbinic text containing eight chapters summarizing his psychological views. The </span><span class="style6">Mishneh Torah</span><span class="style1"> (1178) attempted to codify the totality of Jewish law. He also wrote a number of medical works and a </span><span class="style6">Treatise on Resurrection</span><span class="style1"> (1191). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">aimonides endeavored to integrate the teachings of Judaism with those of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1">, despite the fact that Aristotle maintained that the world was eternal, ruling out a creation or creator. (Maimonides also had a high regard for his contemporary </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Averroes</a></span><span class="style1">.) Maimonides' major work, </span><span class="style6">Guide for the Perplexed</span><span class="style1"> (c.1190), which attempts to harmonize reason and faith, is considered the most important medieval Jewish work in philosophy. For Jewish and Christian philosophers and theologians, citing Maimonides was commonplace. (His work influenced </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Albertus Magnus</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Thomas Aquinas</a></span><span class="style1">.) But the </span><span class="style6">Guide</span><span class="style1"> has its problems for the reader. It is not well organized and is in the form of a personal communication with one of Maimonides' former students, Joseph Ben Judah. Maimonides also stated that views expressed at one point might be contradicted at another, a practice which has led to divergent scholarly interpretations of his work. The </span><span class="style6">Guide</span><span class="style1"> itself is a philosophic exegesis of the "secrets of the Law" and is intended for those well-schooled, not the masses. Terms and parables from the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> are explained in terms of their spiritual intent as well as their literal meaning. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">t. Thomas held that "three things are necessary for the salvation of man: to know what he ought to believe; to know what he ought to desire; and to know what he ought to do." (Two Precepts of Charity) He also offered views on esthetics, arguing that beauty was the splendor of order and that all things of beauty had "clarity, proportion and integrity" (i.e., unity). These esthetic criteria or standards have influenced countless estheticians and artists ever since. (</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Stravinsky</a></span><span class="style1"> loved to quote St. Thomas.)</span><span class="style5">Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon)</span><span class="style1"> 1135-1204Jewish philosopher, physician, jurist and the greatest intellectual figure of medieval Judaism. Born in Cordova, Maimonides was trained by his father and other teachers who grounded him in the Hebrew scriptures, rabbinic literature, science and philosophy. The family was forced to flee in 1148 and settled in Fez, North Africa, before moving on to Palestine and Egypt. Respected throughout the Jewish world because of his vast knowledge, he received inquiries from all over and was appointed head of the Jewish community of Fostat (Cairo). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">t. Thomas posited five proofs for the existence of God, all of them a posteriori (i.e., with an appeal to observation), and therefore Aristotelian rather than the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">ontological </a></span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Platonic</a></span><span class="style1"> a priori proofs of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Anselm</a></span><span class="style1">. 1) an unmoved Mover is necessary to account for motion in the world 2) first efficient cause -- "Now in efficient causes it is not possible to go on to infinity....To take away the cause is to take away the effect....Therefore it is necessary to admit a first efficient cause, to which everyone gives the name of God." 3) dependent finite and corruptible beings must depend on an independent, eternal and incorruptible necessary Being 4) varying degrees of reality and goodness in the world must be approximations of an absolute or maximum reality and goodness 5) order in the universe requires the existence of an intelligent Orderer</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">homas Aquinas distinguished between revealed theology (accepted purely on faith) and natural theology (susceptible of the proof of reason). For him, natural theology was a philosophical concern and of greater interest. (St. Thomas, unlike </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Roger Bacon</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">William of Ockham</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">John Duns Scotus</a></span><span class="style1">, did not separate theology from philosophy.)Aquinas thought that we possess truth directly from God as revealed faith and as the earth was designed by God and man was created in God's image, the mind of man could therefore conform to God. For Thomas there was no opposition between faith and reason once the two were rightly understood. Any system of knowledge that contradicted orthodox Christian truth was, in his opinion, guilty of faulty logic. True to his times, Aquinas liked to construct arguments against accepted beliefs in order to match them with even more ingenious arguments and then reconcile the two positions. The dialectical method of the disputation was stretched to its fullest by these exercises in intellectual skill. </span></text>
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<text>St. Thomas was interested in theories of knowledge (epistemology), had a conception of the soul, and engaged directly in the controversy over the teachings of Aristotle at Paris. He either adopted Aristotle when he felt this to be consistent with the faith or amended Aristotle when the situation demanded it. (Aristotle did not believe in a created world, the immortality of the soul or a solicitous God.) More than anything else, Thomas set the standard of orthodoxy for the Catholic Christian faith. He was a moderate realist (i.e., holding that concepts are the abstractions that the human mind has the power to recognize when it discerns similarities in nature) and a disciplined logician, but was also very attuned to the world of common sense. Aquinas claimed that the two principal powers of the soul were the intellect and the will. St. Thomas agreed with Aristotle that the ultimate goal of human choices was happiness, but argued that happiness had to be eternal to be an absolute, i.e., based on a "Beatific Vision" of God rather than just philosophical knowledge of Him. </text>
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<text><span class="style1">e taught theology at the University of Paris for the next three years, then worked for the papal court and his order and by 1268 was back teaching at the University of Paris and the University of Naples, from which he retired in 1273. He died in 1274 while on his way to a general council of the Church at Lyons. His works, supported and adopted by the Dominicans, but opposed by the Franciscans, were subsequently revived and became central for all of Roman Catholicism. He was canonized in 1323 by Pope John XXII and proclaimed a Doctor of the Church by Pope Pius V in 1567. A prolific writer even by medieval standards, St. Thomas is responsible for making the works of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1"> known and acceptable to the Christian West. His two influential masterpieces of systematic theology are: </span><span class="style6">Summa contra Gentiles</span><span class="style1"> (</span><span class="style6">Against the Errors of the Infidels</span><span class="style1"> ) (1259-1264) and </span><span class="style6">Summa theologica</span><span class="style1"> (1266-1273). A list of his writings may be found in the appendix in Gilson, </span><span class="style6">The Christian Philosophy of St. Thomas.</span><span class="style1"> Among Aquinas' other important writings are: </span><span class="style6">On Being and Essence</span><span class="style1"> (1254-1255); </span><span class="style6">On Truth </span><span class="style1"> (1256-1259); </span><span class="style6">On Evil</span><span class="style1"> (1269-1272); a commentary on the </span><span class="style6">Sentences</span><span class="style1"> of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Peter Lombard</a></span><span class="style1"> and a series of expository commentaries, esp. on the works of Aristotle, as well as shorter works on the issues of the times. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">mong Bonaventure's important (and often mystical ) writings are: </span><span class="style6">Commentary of the Sentences</span><span class="style1"> (of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Peter Lombard</a></span><span class="style1">), </span><span class="style6">Retracing the Arts of Theology, Breviloquium</span><span class="style1"> (a Christocentric compendium of theology), </span><span class="style6">Journey of the Mind to God</span><span class="style1"> (a wonderful medieval "classic") and </span><span class="style6">Biblia Pauperum</span><span class="style1"> (</span><span class="style6">Poor Man's </span><span class="style9"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> ). </span><span class="style5">St. Thomas Aquinas</span><span class="style1"> 1225-1274 The greatest of the scholastics and foremost philosopher and theologian of the Roman Catholic Church, Thomas Aquinas was the organizer of the philosophical system now known as Thomism, and generally credited with working out the best medieval solution to the problem of faith vs. reason. Born at Roccasecca, near Aquino and Monte Cassino, the parent abbey of the Benedictines, Thomas was the seventh son of a noble family. Taught by the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Benedictine</a></span><span class="style1"> monks of Monte Cassino, he later studied liberal arts at the University of Naples and philosophy and theology at the universities in Paris and Cologne under </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Albertus Magnus</a></span><span class="style1">. Though his family resisted to the point of his own brothers kidnapping him, Aquinas joined the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Dominican</a></span><span class="style1"> order of begging friars in 1244. Aquinas received his master of theology degree from the University of Paris in 1256 (The granting of the degree required a papal dispensation because he was under age.) </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">t. Francis' humility, generosity, devotion to God and man and love of nature and animals have made him one of the most venerated religious figures of Christianity. He was canonized in 1228, only two years after his death. (The modern custom of the Christmas creche, with its Holy Family and animals in a stable, is said to have been introduced by St. Francis.)</span><span class="style5">St. Bonaventure (Giovanni di Fidanza)</span><span class="style1"> 1221-1274 Italian scholastic philosopher, theologian, minister general of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Franciscan</a></span><span class="style1"> Order, and Cardinal Bishop of Albano. Giovanni di Fidanza studied at the University of Paris and joined the Franciscan Order in 1243, at which time he took the name Bonaventura. In 1257 he was elected minister general of the Franciscans and devoted most of his time to administrative duties, though he still found time for study and writing. His</span><span class="style6"> Life of St. Francis</span><span class="style1"> was approved by the order in 1263 as the official biography of their founder. In Paris Bonaventure began the practice of public disputations by Franciscan students at meetings of the Order and in 1273 he became a cardinal. Bonaventure died at Lyons and was buried there in the Franciscan Church. He was canonized in 1482 and made a Doctor of the Church in 1587. Having little sympathy with Aristotelian doctrines, his works were </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Augustinian</a></span><span class="style1"> at heart and he tried very hard to orient philosophy toward theology. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">t. Francis of Assisi</span><span class="style1"> c.1181-1226 Founder of the Franciscan Order (Order of Friars Minor) in 1209 and the Order of Poor Clares in 1208, named after St. Clare (1194-1253), their first abbess. A wellborn Italian, St. Francis turned to the ascetic life after a religious conversion. He renounced all worldly possessions and sought a life of simplicity and harmony with nature. The rule and practice of the order that he founded was service to others, thanks to God and humility. The Franciscans embraced poverty, lived by begging and did not earn money or write books. A mystic, St. Francis tried to live as simply as possible thereby establishing a model of piety that many found attractive. This model was also in contrast to the growing influence of the learning that was exemplified by the scholastics. The Franciscan Order went on to become one of the leaders in missionary outreach and in producing highly educated priests and scholars. In 1224 he was said to have received the miracle of stigmata (the wounds of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Christ</a></span><span class="style1"> appearing on the body) from which he suffered until his death in 1226. He wrote his famous hymn, </span><span class="style6">Canticle of the Sun</span><span class="style1"> ("Brother Sun and Sister Moon") in 1225 in a garden in Assisi. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">t. Dominic (Domingo de Guzman)</span><span class="style1"> c.1170-1221 Born into a prominent Spanish family, Dominic founded the Dominican order in 1216. (During a famine in 1191, he is said to have sold all of his possessions, including his books in order to help the poor.) Less of a mystic than his contemporary </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Francis of Assisi</a></span><span class="style1">, his order, called the Order of Friars Preachers, was also of the mendicant (i.e., supporting themselves by begging) sort. Dominic dispersed brothers to all parts of Europe, thus establishing the principle of a world-wide missionary movement. He wanted his brothers to be well-trained theologians while at the same time adopting the rule of poverty and the task of preaching to the urban poor. Governed by a highly developed constitutional system combining central authority with representative government, the Dominican Order became very successful. Many of its members became leading scholars and theologians as Dominicans seemed to be drawn to university towns. Interestingly, Dominic was influenced by living in the area where the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Cathari</a></span><span class="style1"> (or </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Albigensians</a></span><span class="style1">) and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Waldensians</a></span><span class="style1"> (relatively small but influential non-Roman Catholic religious movements) were active and their street preaching very successful. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">lbertus Magnus </span><span class="style1"> (Albert the Great) c.1200-1280 German scholastic philosopher, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">scientist</a></span><span class="style1">, theologian, and writer who established the medieval study of natural science. Descended from a family of Counts in Bavaria, Albertus was educated in Padua. Endowed with an encyclopedic mind, he was called "Doctor Universalis." He taught at the University of Paris and was a student of both Arab and Jewish writers (esp. their views on </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1">), regularly quoting Jewish philosophers, particularly </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Maimonides</a></span><span class="style1">. He did more than anyone to bring about the union of theology and Aristotelian thought which is the basis of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">scholasticism</a></span><span class="style1">. A trained scientist, Albertus was interested in metals and inorganic elements and left his valuable observations of the comet of 1240. Albert entered the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Dominican</a></span><span class="style1"> order in 1223, taught at Cologne from 1248 to 1254 and then became Bishop of Ratisbon in 1260 (spending only two years in this post). His most famous pupil, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Thomas Aquinas</a></span><span class="style1">, was also one of his best friends. Among his extensive writings are: </span><span class="style6">De Sacramentis, Summa de Creaturis</span><span class="style1"> (a commentary on Peter Lombard's </span><span class="style6">Sentences</span><span class="style1"> ), a </span><span class="style6">Summa Theologiae</span><span class="style1"> (unfinished at his death), translations and explanations of Aristotle and other works in philosophy and theology. Albertus was canonized and made a Doctor of the Church in 1931. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">iger de Brabant</span><span class="style1"> c.1240-c.1284 One of the secular </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Neoaristotelians</a></span><span class="style1">, Siger studied the works of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Proclus</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Avicenna</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Averroes</a></span><span class="style1"> at the University of Paris, where he became a master in the faculty of arts in 1266. His works have only recently been discovered and are evidence of a medieval school of philosophy that was not attached to theology. Siger, often criticized by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Bonaventure</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Thomas Aquinas</a></span><span class="style1">, went to Rome to defend his views. Acquitted of heresy, he was kept under house arrest and eventually murdered by his demented secretary. Were the secular Aristotelians believing Christians? This matter has been debated with no definitive answer. Their general views are that religion and philosophy can be in conflict, that creation out of nothing (ex nihilo) is philosophically untenable, that the human will is determined and that the intellectual soul in all men is one. In his work, Siger was a serious philosopher exploring many subjects including causation, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">universals</a></span><span class="style1"> and human existence. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Dante</a></span><span class="style1"> included Siger in Paradise in his </span><span class="style6">Divine Comedy.</span><span class="style1"> In addition to his commentaries on the works of Aristotle, Siger wrote </span><span class="style6">On the Intellectual Soul, On the Eternity of the World, On the Necessity and Contingency of Causes</span><span class="style1"> and a number of smaller works in logic, physics, psychology and metaphysics. Fragments exist from his </span><span class="style6">On the Intellect </span><span class="style1">and</span><span class="style6"> The Book of Happiness.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">eter Lombard </span><span class="style1"> c.1100-1164 Known as the "Master of the Sentences," Peter Lombard was born in Lombardy and studied in Bologna, Reims and Paris. (He was a student of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Abelard</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Hugh St. Victor</a></span><span class="style1">.) Lombard became a teacher of theology in the school of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Notre Dame in Paris</a></span><span class="style1"> c.1135 and was appointed Bishop of Paris in 1159. Between 1150 and 1158 he wrote </span><span class="style6">Sententiarum libri quatuor</span><span class="style1"> (</span><span class="style6">Four Books of Sentences</span><span class="style1"> ) in which he discussed the whole field of theology. A thesis or question was asked for each topic and authorities were presented for and against based on Scripture, the church fathers, the decrees of the church councils and papal pronouncements. He then offered a judgment on the particular issue being discussed. This medieval methodology was the basis for formal disputation in the universities for the granting of degrees. One was judged on the ability to argue the propositions based on the classical answers of scholars. Lombard's </span><span class="style6">Sentences</span><span class="style1"> was so highly regarded that it became the standard Catholic theological textbook until after the Reformation. Lombard's fixing of the number of sacraments at seven was adopted by the church at the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Council of Trent</a></span><span class="style1">.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">ohn Duns Scotus</span><span class="style1"> c.1265-1308 Scottish </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Franciscan</a></span><span class="style1"> realist theologian and philosopher. Born in Scotland, John Duns Scotus became a member of the Scottish Franciscans (like </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Roger Bacon</a></span><span class="style1">) at a very early age and studied at Oxford. Ordained a priest in 1291, he completed the work for a master of theology at the University of Paris by 1305. Although a </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">realist</a></span><span class="style1">, he attacked both the realists and nominalists who were his predecessors. He worked on his </span><span class="style6">Ordinatio</span><span class="style1"> (known as the "Oxford Work" -- lectures on the </span><span class="style6">Sentences</span><span class="style1"> of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Peter Lombard</a></span><span class="style1">) for a year before becoming the holder of the chair of theology at the University of Paris. He continued to lecture at the University of Paris and elsewhere, including Cologne, where he died in 1308. His lectures were published as the </span><span class="style6">Reportata Parisiensa.</span><span class="style1"> His reputation was such that he has been called the "Subtle Doctor." One recognizes this in his </span><span class="style6">A Treatise on God as First Principle.</span><span class="style1"> His theology was followed by many Catholic scholars until the 18th century. Duns Scotus, like Roger Bacon and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">William of Ockham</a></span><span class="style1">, but unlike </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Thomas Aquinas</a></span><span class="style1">, separated theology from philosophy.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ot part of the contemporary mainstream in Parisian theological and philosophical circles, Bacon's independent and critical nature led to a life of turmoil; at one point he was under virtual house arrest by his Franciscan order. Despite these conflicts he produced his own </span><span class="style6">Metaphysics,</span><span class="style1"> and later, at the request of Pope Clement VI, his </span><span class="style6">Greater Work</span><span class="style1"> (1268), his </span><span class="style6">Lesser Work</span><span class="style1"> and his </span><span class="style6">Third Work</span><span class="style1"> (1272). At the time of his death he had written an incomplete </span><span class="style6">Compendium of Philosophy</span><span class="style1"> and started a </span><span class="style6">Compendium of Theology. </span><span class="style1"> Thought of as the greatest scientist of his time, Bacon's curiosity about the natural world and devotion to experimental science was total, yet he held that all knowledge was subordinate to moral philosophy. Bacon, like Duns Scotus and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">William of Ockham</a></span><span class="style1">, but unlike </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Thomas Aquinas</a></span><span class="style1">, separated theology from philosophy. His theory of knowledge was thoroughly </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Augustinian</a></span><span class="style1">. Bacon has also been of interest to subsequent scholars because he talked about horseless carriages, gunpowder, flying machines and other future inventions. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">lthough a very prolific writer, it is somewhat difficult to reconstruct an accurate chronology or even a list of Grosseteste's writings. He was interested in optics, developed a theory of light and knew and used the Greek language. His cosmology was based in part on geometry, which he also applied to his studies in optics. In addition to </span><span class="style6">On Light</span><span class="style1"> and several other works on optics, Grosseteste's non-philosophical and non-theological writings include a work on kings and an agricultural treatise. His commentaries on Aristotle's </span><span class="style6">Posterior Analytics </span><span class="style1">and</span><span class="style6"> Physics</span><span class="style1"> were influential. He was instrumental in the translation of Aristotle's </span><span class="style6">Nichomachean Ethics</span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style6">De Anima</span><span class="style1"> as well as the </span><span class="style6">Sentences</span><span class="style1"> of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Peter Lombard</a></span><span class="style1">. </span><span class="style5">Roger Bacon </span><span class="style1"> c.1214-1292 </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Franciscan</a></span><span class="style1"> philosopher, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">man of science</a></span><span class="style1"> and educational reformer. Born at Ilchester in Somerset, England, Bacon was at Oxford by 1230 and in Paris by 1236. He lectured on </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1">'s </span><span class="style6">Metaphysics</span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style6">Physics,</span><span class="style1"> composing </span><span class="style6">Questions</span><span class="style1"> on each. Around 1247 his interest in science increased dramatically and he became friends with experimenters, engineers, astrologers and other intellectuals. He, like </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">John Duns Scotus</a></span><span class="style1">, joined the Franciscan order. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ARLY GOTHIC PHILOSOPHERS AND THEOLOGIANS (1150-1300)(For a more comprehensive listing see "REL/PHIL" grid for each country)</span><span class="style5">Robert Grosseteste</span><span class="style1"> c.1175-1253 English theologian and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">influential scholar</a></span><span class="style1">. Of peasant stock, Grosseteste was born at Stradbroke in Suffolk, England. He probably studied at Oxford and was a master by 1189. He developed a reputation in medicine, served the Bishop of Hereford, and during a period when Oxford was officially closed by order of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">King John</a></span><span class="style1">, studied in Paris. When Oxford reopened in 1229, Grosseteste became its first chancellor, serving from 1215 to 1221. He was a teacher to the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Franciscans</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1224, the official master of the Oxford Franciscans in 1229 and Bishop of Lincoln, serving from 1235 to 1253. Grosseteste was a pioneer in what is now called natural science and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Roger Bacon</a></span><span class="style1"> credited him with his own interest in science. The extent to which Bacon's advanced views were also shared by Grosseteste is not known. [Roger Bacon spoke of him with great respect and may have been his student.] </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he church used the Inquisition against the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Cathari</a></span><span class="style1"> and the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Waldenses</a></span><span class="style1">, internally against dissident groups and individuals and externally against civil authorities, including kings. Sixtus IV (r.1471-1484) instituted the dreaded Spanish Inquisition in 1479 and Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain obtained a papal decree making them responsible for the appointment of inquisitors. The church in Spain was very conservative and closely tied to internal politics and the Spanish monarchy. The inquisition became a powerful tool of repression within Spain, especially against Jews and Moslems, Spanish Protestants and those accused of "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Lutheranism</a></span><span class="style1">." Tomas de Torquemada (1420-1498) was the Dominican inquisitor general. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">HE INQUISITION The juridical investigation of heresy known as the papal inquisition became an official function and office of the church under Pope Gregory IX (r.1227-1241). Its task was assigned mainly to the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Dominican</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Franciscan</a></span><span class="style1"> orders and soon came to be feared. (The papal inquisitors were probably the first official group of "thought police.") Its procedures were secret, the accused were never given the names of their accusers and punishment was severe. If confessions were accepted, penance followed; if found guilty, the accused were turned over to the civil authorities for punishment. Extreme punishment (i.e., torture and death at the stake) was accepted because heresy was seen as a crime against God. The property of the heretic was also appropriated, leading to abuses by both the church and civil authorities who often divided up the spoils. Extreme torture was allowed to extract confessions under a papal bull (decree) of Pope Innocent IV (r.1243-1254) in 1252. (A rather poorly named pope in the circumstances!)</span></text>
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<text>The program that developed within the movement was based on: 1) a view of the New Testament as the sole rule of life 2) strict obedience to the letter of the Bible 3) the memorization of large portions of the New Testament 4) traveling in pairs of preachers 5) renunciation of marriage and all possessions 6) equality of women, even as preachers 7) lay celebration of the Lord's Supper (Eucharist) when no priest was availableForced underground by persecution, the movement settled in the valleys near Turin where they survived. They adopted the principles of the Protestant Reformation, becoming fully Protestant, surviving to our own time in a modified form, especially in Piedmont as the "Chiese Evangelica Valdese." </text>
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<text>THE WALDENSES A sect founded by [Peter] Valdes (c.1150-c.1210; the name Peter was added later and his surname was formerly, but incorrectly spelled Waldo). He was a wealthy merchant from Lyons, who, having made provision for his wife and family with life endowments, became a street preacher. Valdes used the vernacular Scriptures and translations of the Church Fathers. He soon attracted a following with his call for voluntary poverty and repentance. The Waldenses or Waldensians (known as the "poor men of Lyons") were denied their request to do their type of preaching and ministry by the church and in 1182 Pope Lucius III (r.1181-1185) excommunicated them. The movement continued and actually grew, spreading to Spain, Germany, Piedmont and Lombardy. </text>
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<text><span class="style1">HE CATHARI OR ALBIGENSIANS Influenced greatly by the Bogomiles from Bulgaria, and also called Albigensians in the south of France, the Cathari (after the Greek word for "pure") broke from the Roman Catholic Church to form communities of their own. Calling themselves "pure Christians" or "good Christians," they lived exemplary lives, modelled on their understanding of the early Christian community. Women were welcomed and given equal status in the hierarchically organized movement. Practitioners of popular preaching, the movement attracted a following in southern France. They also translated portions of the Latin Bible into the vernacular. Based on a dualistic concept that considered the material world as entirely evil, the Cathari believed that only God could help persons overcome and denounce the secular world through the practice of severe asceticism and membership in the Cathar community. Severely persecuted by the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Inquisition</a></span><span class="style1">, the movement was virtually wiped out by the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Fourth Crusade</a></span><span class="style1">. In 1202 </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Innocent III</a></span><span class="style1"> called for a crusade against, among other things, the "heretics of southern France." The persecutions lasted twenty years, though a small group resisted successfully until 1243. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">RE-REFORMERS This term identifies those persons and movements that were beginning to challenge the monopoly of the Roman Catholic Church in the West. In a sense, they reflect the failure of the church to reform itself, or at least the conviction that true reform by the popes or the church councils would never be achieved within the existing religious order. There were also those who felt that the message of Christianity was not being taken to the common people; central to this concept was the necessity for providing a translation of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> in the vernacular, the common language of the people. The level of scholarship was such that translations from both the Hebrew and the Greek languages were possible, but there was considerable disagreement as to whether such a plan should be carried out, some feeling that a real danger lay hidden in such a proposal. They proved to be correct. When people could obtain and read the Bible for themselves, they began to ask questions about ecclesiastical authority. Were the Cathari and the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Waldensians</a></span><span class="style1"> pre-reforming groups? Only in the sense that they posed a real threat to the Roman Catholic dominance in the West. The Roman Catholic Church regarded them as heresies. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">t. Anselm</a></span><span class="style1">, Archbishop of Canterbury, and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Peter Abelard</a></span><span class="style1"> are considered the founders of Scholasticism. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Hugh of St. Victor</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Albertus Magnus</a></span><span class="style1"> and, above all, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Thomas Aquinas</a></span><span class="style1">, were the most important Christian scholastics. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Avicenna</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Averroes</a></span><span class="style1"> were the most influential Islamic Neoaristotelians, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Maimonides</a></span><span class="style1"> the greatest of the Jewish Neoaristotelians and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Siger de Brabant</a></span><span class="style1"> the most important of the secular Neoaristotelians. From the end of the twelfth century to 1400 over fifty universities came into existence in Europe. The Universities of Paris, Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, Salerno and Montpelier were among the most prominent. Clearly, the university remains one of the most important contributions of the Middle Ages. If the Scholastics had done nothing more than given us Oxford and Cambridge we would still be in their debt. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">see </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Philosophical/Theological Summary</a></span><span class="style1">)(see also </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Medieval Philosophy and Religion</a></span><span class="style1">)SCHOLASTICISM (NEOARISTOTELIANISM)In the middle of the twelfth century (1130-1170) the main corpus of the works of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1">, previously only available in fragments, became available to Western scholars. Translations of Aristotle were done in Antioch, Syria, Constantinople, Sicily and Spain. First in Arabic, then Latin, these translations were later corrected and enlarged directly from the Greek. The </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Dominican</a></span><span class="style1"> William of Moerbeke (c.1215-1286) was the greatest of these translators. The works that came through Spain were also accompanied by extensive commentaries written by Islamic and Jewish thinkers. These translations of Aristotle and the rise of the universities provided the context in which the Scholasticism (or Neoaristotelianism) emerged, as well as introducing to the West the work of Islamic and Jewish scholars. Scholasticism is the name given to the philosophy taught in the medieval cathedral schools and universities which attempted to fuse Christian theology with elements of Aristotle's philosophy into a rigorously logical system. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ARMONY octaves, fifths and fourths were still the main intervals used, especially at cadences or structural pointsRHYTHM triple meter (tempus perfectum) in one of six rhythmic modes was introduced by Franco of Cologne (fl. 1250-1280) in his </span><span class="style6">Ars cantus mensurabilis</span><span class="style1"> (thus the name,"Franconian notation")MELODY except for the chant in the lowest voice of Notre Dame organa and Gothic motets, the melodies, often highly melismatic (more than one note per syllable) were newly composedFORM musical designs were almost invariably text-determined almost until the Baroque era (1600-1750)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> SECULAR MONOPHONIC SONGS one-voice music with love lyrics written by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">troubadours</a></span><span class="style1"> (S. France), </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">trouveres</a></span><span class="style1"> (N.France), </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">minnesingers</a></span><span class="style1"> (Germany) and goliards (wandering minstrels) LITURGICAL DRAMA chant-like dramatic presentations of Biblical stories (e.g., </span><span class="style6">The Play of Daniel</span><span class="style1"> )SONORITY for the first time there were more than two lines of music sung simultaneously (see Notre Dame organum above) any instrumental accompaniments in the genres listed above was strictly ad hoc (specified instrumentation in ensemble works does not appear until the late Renaissance)</span></text>
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<text> GOTHIC MOTET French secular words ("mots") were sung in the upper voice(s) of Notre Dame organa, replacing the sacred texts the chant melody was still used in the lower voice, but probably played by an instrument CONDUCTUS Latin sacred texts were sung in all the voices AND the bottom voice no longer had a chant melody sung in longer note values CANON the first canon (i.e., an imitative piece sung as a round like "Row, row, row your boat") was the famous English "Sumer is icumen in" (c.1240)</text>
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<text><span class="style1">he Early Gothic era is known in music history as the Ars Antiqua to distinguish it from the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Ars Nova</a></span><span class="style1"> or the High Gothic era in music GENRE - several new genres appeared in the early Gothic era Notre Dame organum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . two lines of music in the works of Leonin (fl. 1170 - musician at </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Notre Dame</a></span><span class="style1"> in Paris) three and four lines of music in the works of Perotin . . . . . . . . . . . . . (fl. 1230 - Leonin's successor at Notre Dame) the bottom voice was still the chant sung in longer note values with the freer upper voices now sung in a rhythmic meter (i.e., one of six rhythmic modes)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">iena Cathedral</span><span class="style1">The facade is marble and it was completed in the Gothic style by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Giovanni Pisano</a></span><span class="style1">. One of the outstanding features are the three gabled portals with tracery turrets. Figurative elements are used more independently and this freeing of the human figure from its architectural constraints represent the Italian contribution to the Gothic style. </span><span class="style5">Abbey Church of Fossanova</span><span class="style1">Italian Gothic was in reality the French style imported to Italy. The Cistercian Abbey at Fossanova, begun in 1187, was built in the austere style decreed by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Bernard</a></span><span class="style1">. The style might be considered bleak with the square east-end and huge compound piers which support pointed transverse arches. The vaulting over the nave and choir is simple groin-vaulting. There is no stained glass. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">ologne Cathedral</span><span class="style1">Bishop Gerhard supervised the building of this Gothic Cathedral, which was completed in several stages. Heavy foliated ornamentation characterizes the arches and arcades as German, but the basic interior design is French. The architect heightened the towers dramatically in two pointed tracery spires. </span><span class="style5">Florence Cathedral</span><span class="style1">The original plans were attributed to Arnolfo di Cambio in 1296. These were embellished and additions were made by other architects. So the architecture was designed more by a committee than by an individual. The interior is simple and spare when compared to French cathedrals. Openness and "cubes of space" characterizes the interior. The dome is a strong design element, shedding light from the lunettes. Coloured marble is utilized extensively and the bell tower's lower two stories were designed by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Giotto</a></span><span class="style1">. The upper five stories of the campanile were completed by Talenti in the mid 14th century. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">miens Cathedral</span><span class="style1">Amiens used the "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Chartres</a></span><span class="style1"> elevation," raising the height of the ceilings. The soaring effect of the interior at Amiens surpasses that of other Gothic Cathedrals. The crown line of the vault is level and the structure has become like a cage, comprised of the most delicate stone elements. Volume is no longer described by mass but by linear elements. "Rayonnant" refers to the multitude of directional forces used in this phase of high Gothic, when Amiens was finished. </span><span class="style5">La Sainte-Chapelle</span><span class="style1">This double-storied chapel was built in the 1240s to host relics (i.e., pieces) of the True Cross which </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Louis IX</a></span><span class="style1"> had somehow acquired (perhaps on a Crusade?). The relics were placed in the upper chapel, a single cell in which the masonry has been replaced by huge stained glass windows. On the vaulting shafts stand figures of the Apostles. Statues witness the events of the Passion of Christ, symbolized by the relics, inside the building rather than guarding the entrance. The metal reliquary had been turned inside out, with the embellished building serving as a reliquary in toto.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">iems Cathedral</span><span class="style1">Wall passages on the aisles were used in conjunction with screens of columns across the entrance to each choir chapel at Riems. The earliest known patterns of bar tracery in the windows exist here. Riems was traditionally the coronation church of French kings. The sculpture and stained glass are considered to be of the highest order for their time. </span><span class="style5">Laon Cathedral</span><span class="style1">Norman influence is evidenced in the marked divisions of the bays and the use of the galleries. However, the ribbed vaults at Laon are linked to the piers by way of the vault shafts. Thus the parts were related to the whole in a manner that was characteristic of early Gothic. Stylised leaves on the capitals replaced the monsters and figurative scenes of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Romanesque</a></span><span class="style1">. Both round and pointed arches are used, indicating the transitional quality of the styles employed. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">hartres Cathedral</span><span class="style1">Chartres is a stone framework for glass and sculpture. The height of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">clerestory</a></span><span class="style1"> was doubled and the weight of the vault is taken on fliers. The load-bearing capacity of the stone was extended to the point that the limitation of the height to which one of these massive structures could rise was measured by the point at which the lower stones would be crushed. The wall is nearly non-existent. The arches, the aisle windows and and all of the embellishments are visible. The stained glass gives the desired effect of glowing, coloured darkness. Sculpture is lavish in Chartres, and it became a model for high Gothic architecture. Stained glass is the most brilliant coloristic medium invented before the 20th century. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">t. Denis</span><span class="style1">St. Denis was built about 1140 by Abbe Suger (c.1081-1151) who was one of the first "modern men" of the Middle Ages. He loved art and argued that we could only understand absolute beauty, which is God, through the effect of precious and beautiful things on our senses. Suger introduced the Gothic pointed arch in St. Denis, the lightness of high windows, the rose window and painted glass -- "a fitting environment for the worship of God." Originally St. Denis had porticos with rows of standing figures, but they were replaced by columns. Abbe Suger said, "The dull mind rises to truth through that which is material." </span><span class="style5">Notre Dame de Paris</span><span class="style1">The architect was </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Villard de Honnecourt</a></span><span class="style1">. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Notre Dame's facade</a></span><span class="style1"> was planned about 1200 and completed around 1250. The rectilinear design is widely admired. Exposed flying buttresses took the weight of the vault, allowing the very thin upper walls to contain windows. It represents a "reaching heavenward" and the effect of the light coming through the coloured windows is an other-worldliness, such as seen in the use of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">mosaic</a></span><span class="style1"> in Byzantine art. It was the first of the giant French Gothic cathedrals. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">orcester Cathedral</span><span class="style1">An English </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Norman</a></span><span class="style1"> Cathedral, Worcester contains transitional bays at the west end of the nave which were built in the 1170s. Wall shafts and ribbed vaults appear side-by-side with Anglo-Norman ornament and thick walls. The piers produced a diamond shape. </span><span class="style5">Caernarvon Castle, Wales</span><span class="style1">One of the mightiest castles in Wales, Caernarvon was built by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Edward I</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1283 to confirm his conquest of northern Wales and mark his victory over the last of the native Welsh princes. (It was the scene of the investiture in 1969 of Prince Charles as Prince of Wales.) Built as a military fortress, arrow loops and spy holes guard the approach from various levels. The Eagle Tower has three tall turrets grouped together and there is a figure of an eagle on the western turret. Queen's Tower is linked with the Eagle Tower by wall walks at two levels. Twelve centuries before Caernarvon was built, the Romans recognized the strategic importance of the site in North Wales. It is the only Roman fort in Wales where internal buildings remain exposed. Sergontium was the Roman fort in 78 A.D. and was used as a base for mounting invasions of the interior.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">ork Minster</span><span class="style1">Standing on rather inadequate foundations, the central column of York Minster's nave was abolished and a wooden imitation of a stone vault was constructed to support the 60 foot span. These were called "sham" vaults, and it is where timber architecture becomes important for the rest of the Middle Ages. Small ribs which start and end on other ribs are called liernes. The east window is reputedly the largest expanse of stained glass in the world. </span><span class="style5">Salisbury Cathedral</span><span class="style1">Salisbury's screen facade, like that of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Wells Cathedral</a></span><span class="style1">, extends beyond the width of the building and with tiny, insignificant doors, is part of an English tradition that ignores the French. Begun in 1220 on a new site, Salisbury shows how early English Gothic cathedrals were intended to look. Two pairs of transepts and a Lady Chapel (now the Trinity Chapel) projecting to the east, its angular severity enhanced by lancet windows. The wide screen facade originally contained statues in niches. The tower and spire were added in the 14th century, after the rest of the building was finished. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">ells Cathedral</span><span class="style1"> (Screen)Wells has buildings of different periods as do most English cathedrals. The Screen facade demonstrates the English repugnance for huge sculpted doorways. The sculptures, representing the Last Judgment, are spread across the entire west front and make up the greatest surviving collection in England of 13th-century figurative sculpture. Originally there were 340 carvings of which 150 were of life size or larger. </span><span class="style5">Peterborough Cathedral </span><span class="style1">Peterborough, a midlands structure with Mercian architecture, represents a Carolingian revival. It was replete with precious objects such as gold and silver reliquaries, crucifixes and plates, ornate vestments and books provided by its last Anglo-Saxon abbot, Leofric. The </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Normans</a></span><span class="style1"> felt the architecture fell short of the contents in quality and style. In 1116 there was a fire which led to the subsequent reconstruction in 1118. The walls were over 10 feet thick and more complex Norman architectural devices were employed. It was considered an "overlap" building.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">incoln Cathedral </span><span class="style1">Lincoln was built in the 1190s. The famous "Crazy Vault" denies all the upward organic growth implied in a traditional Gothic vault. A double layer of blind arcading is also employed which demonstrates the English affinity for marble ornamentation on otherwise static surfaces. Thick walls and squat proportions are typical of English architecture of the 13th century. Lincoln Cathedral is famous for its elaborately patterned vaults in coloured marbles. A huge traceried window is set into the flat east wall, the "Angel Choir" is named so for the angels that flank the vault springers.</span><span class="style5">Norwich Cathedral</span><span class="style1">A monastic Cathedral, Norwich has a long, low profile and naves of superimposed arches under wooden roofs. As in </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Ely Cathedral</a></span><span class="style1">, the doors are embellished with sculpture and the arcade capitals with patterns of chevrons. Terrible monsters of Nordic origin demonstrate the Scandinavian influence on subject matter in the visual arts. The method of determining the height of the arches was taken from the Roman field survey systems using a fixed mathematical proportion, which related to parts of the building by a simple ratio.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">inchester Cathedral</span><span class="style1">This cathedral was built on the German model and stood over the site of St. Swithen's grave and probably housed his reliquary casket. It was also famous for its manuscript illumination of an independent style. The cathedral was part of a "burh," a walled fortress built by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Alfred</a></span><span class="style1"> as a defensive device. The burh included a palace, the cathedral and the mint at Winchester.</span><span class="style5">Durham Cathedral</span><span class="style1"> (tower added)</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Norman</a></span><span class="style1"> architects built in Durham, Northumbria, one of the most formidable interiors of the Middle Ages. Ribbed vaulting was intended from the start in 1093 and by 1104 the choir had been vaulted. The rose window is a Gothic addition, adding light and colour to the massive expanse of the nave. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style10">salter of St. Louis</span><span class="style1"> (c. 1260) Made for </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Louis IX</a></span><span class="style1">, it is a fine example of the Gothic illuminated manuscript in vibrant colour.</span><span class="style5">Canterbury Cathedral </span><span class="style1">(choir)The east end or choir of Canterbury Cathedral was built in 1174 as a glorious setting for the shrine of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Thomas Becket</a></span><span class="style1">. The architect, William of Sens, introduced colored marble shafting from the Valenciennes area. He also used block-shaped capitals and a logical cross-ribbed vault. The trade connections between France and England encouraged the passage of ideas for surface ornament.</span><span class="style5">Chichester Cathedral</span><span class="style1">The influence of Canterbury is obvious in the columns of the retro-choir, remodeled after 1187. It is a </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Norman</a></span><span class="style1"> abbey with a round, squared off presbytery and chapels added on the eastern side. The choir was extended and a new lady chapel was added with a retro-choir (the chapels and the other space behind the high altar in a large church) between them.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">ld Testament Miniatures</span><span class="style1"> (c. 1250) The Late Gothic Manuscripts became more expansive in their use of space. The function of the book was to decorate a page and illustrate part of the text. These works strove to increase the sense of humanity in the characters of the Old Testament. Toward the end of the 14th century the illuminations took on the character of an independent painting. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Jean Pucelle</a></span><span class="style1"> used the entire page as illustration. Unusual borders invaded the page margins, and bizarre decorative elements enlivened the confines of the book page. Illuminated manuscripts became coveted possessions of the aristocracy in the Northern regions. </span><span class="style10">Prayer Book of Philip the Fair</span><span class="style1"> (c.1295) Executed by Master Honore and paid for in 1296, the hands, face and hair are executed in the traditional style using pen lines. However the great advancement was the dimensionality of the figures due to a strong modelling. The mass of the figure is emphasised by the reduction in contrast between the figure and the ground it stands against. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">iovanni Pisano</span><span class="style1"> (c.1250-c.1320) Son of Nicola, Giovanni's work was more Gothic than his father's. He employed pointed arches and foliate capitals in his octagonal pulpit in Pistoia. His sculptural style was more dramatic. He was the principal architect of the facade of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Siena Cathedral</a></span><span class="style1"> and a master of the free narrative style, almost entirely devoid of Classical influence. </span><span class="style6">The Slaughter of the Innocents,</span><span class="style1"> on the Pistoia pulpit, demonstrates the expressive devices used to create the narrative. </span><span class="style5">Arnolfo di Cambio </span><span class="style1"> (c.1232-c.1300) An architect and sculptor in Florence, Cambio envisaged the dome for </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Florence Cathedral</a></span><span class="style1"> which was completed by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Brunelleschi</a></span><span class="style1">. </span><span class="style5">Villard de Honnecourt</span><span class="style1"> c.1225-c.1250Master architect, his work includes </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Notre Dame de Paris</a></span><span class="style1">. His stylistic bent was Medieval, but he developed the prototype of the Gothic Cathedral. His masonry notebook included facts on all the spectacular buildings he had visited. He wrote and studied on the behaviour of stone under stress which let to real knowledge of its limitations and capacities.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">imabue (Bencivieni di Pepo)</span><span class="style1"> (c.1240-1302) A Florentine, Cimabue was the first important painter of the Middle Ages. Raised in the Byzantine tradition, in about 1280 he painted the </span><span class="style6">Madonna Enthroned,</span><span class="style1"> an altarpiece more than 11 feet high, for Santa Trinita in Florence. He is believed to have been influenced by Greek aesthetics. The postures of the Virgin and Child confirm this and the refined modelling of the faces and draperies show the style of Constantinople of the day. Cimabue took the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Byzantine mosaic</a></span><span class="style1"> style, the monumental figures, and synthesized the effect into painting into his own style. </span><span class="style5">Nicola Pisano </span><span class="style1"> (c.1225-1284) Nicola came to Tuscany from Pisa, in southern Italy. His first great work was the hexagonal marble pulpit in the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Baptistry in Pisa</a></span><span class="style1">. He was highly interested in ancient art as was Cimabue. His </span><span class="style6">Adoration of the Magi</span><span class="style1"> shows the Roman style of compressing figures in space. The hair and the draperies are reminiscent of Roman examples. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">The Gothic world was a world of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">chivalry</a></span><span class="style1">, courtesy and romance; a world in which serious things were done with a sense of play and when architecture reached a point of extravagance unequalled in history." Lord ClarkSometimes known as the age of the great cathedrals, the Gothic era is also known as the age of chivalry (or courtly love) -- the age of the mistress of the castle usually pictured in a garden of delight surrounded by her troubadours and minstrels. Connected with this idealized view of women was the rise of the Cult of the Virgin Mary (e.g., most French cathedrals are named Notre Dame de.....).</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ppearance of "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Halley</a></span><span class="style1">'s" Comet in 1066Lady Godiva made her famous naked ride through Coventry in 1040 to persuade her husband, the Earl of Mercia, to remit the heavy taxes (Is this the origin for the tax form 1040?)</span></text>
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<text>EAST/WEST SPLIT IN 1054 in 1054 the Cardinal sent by Pope Leo IX (r.1049-1054) and the Patriarch of Constantinople excommunicated each other over doctrinal matters including the mandatory use of the Greek rite in Constantinople - the churches are still separate although the mutual excommunication was lifted in 1965</text>
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<text>1st Lateran Council 1059 - Pope Nicholas II r.1059-1061 College of Cardinals now chooses the Pope, not the nobility all cardinals must be chosen from the Roman clergy</text>
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<text> Investiture Controversy 1049-1122 Henry IV vs. Pope Gregory VII (r.1073-1085) an argument over who appoints the bishops Henry IV tried to appoint the Archbishop of Milan - the Church won Guelfs (pro-Pope) vs. Ghibellines (pro-Emperor) Concordat of Worms 1122 ended the controversy pope chooses bishops south of the Alps and emperors would help choose and invest bishops north of the Alps</text>
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<text><span class="style1">erengar of Tours c.1010-1088 -- </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">scholastic</a></span><span class="style1"> theologian</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Peter Abelard</a></span><span class="style1"> 1079-1142</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Bernard of Clairvaux</a></span><span class="style1"> 1090-1153 a Cistercian (an important and top-heavy order) monk and mystic a strong churchman daring to chasten even the greatest feudal landlords preached the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Second Crusade</a></span><span class="style1"></span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Hugh of St. Victor</a></span><span class="style1"> 1096-1141Roscelin de Compiegne (or Johannes Roscellinus) c.1050-c.1125 -- scholastic philosopher; founder of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">nominalism</a></span><span class="style1"> </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">anfranc c.1010-1089 -- </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">scholastic</a></span><span class="style1"> theologian and Archbishop of Canterbury (r.1070-1089) Archbishopric of York made subordinate to Canterbury in 1073</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Anselm</a></span><span class="style1"> of Canterbury 1033-1109Adelard of Bath fl.12th cen. -- writer on philosophy; also important for transmitting Arabic scientific learning to the West</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">uido d'Arezzo</a></span><span class="style1"> c. 997-1050 staff of 4 lines arranged in 3rds solmization (ut re mi fa sol la - the notes of the scale) </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">t. Nicholas</a></span><span class="style1">, Novgorod founded in Russia in 1113 one of the first onion-domed churches</span></text>
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<text><span class="style9"><a href="#" class="group">ong of Roland</a></span><span class="style1"> c. 1100 epic poem dealing with the defeat of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Charlemagne</a></span><span class="style1">'s rear guard by the Spanish Moors in 798</span></text>
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<text><span class="style9"><a href="#" class="group">omesday Book</a></span><span class="style1"> - 1085 compiled on orders of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">William the Conqueror</a></span><span class="style1"> lists consisting of the assets of landowners to provide a basis for taxationGeoffrey of Monmouth c. 1100-1154 - </span><span class="style6">Historia Britonum</span><span class="style1">earliest record of a miracle play in Dunstable, England c. 1100</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">eir Eriksson</a></span><span class="style1"> (fl.1000), son of Erik the Red, discovers America (Novia Scotia) c. 1000 </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">oslems sack the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem in 1009, leading to the Crusades(See Essay "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">The Early Crusades</a></span><span class="style1">" and Medieval V Essay "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">The Later Crusades</a></span><span class="style1">")</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">heocracy</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">EAST/WEST SPLIT IN 1054</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1054 the Cardinal sent by Pope Leo IX (r.1049-1054) and the Patriarch of Constantinople excommunicated each other over doctrinal matters including the mandatory use of the Greek rite in Constantinople - the churches are still separate although the mutual excommunication was lifted in 1965</span></text>
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<text>1031-1474 Spain was divided into many small kingdoms mostly ruled by the Moors (Spanish Moslems)El Cid (Diaz de Vivar) c.1043-1099 took Valencia from the Moors in 1094</text>
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<text><span class="style1">ubject to the HRE 961-1254</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">1st Lateran Council</a></span><span class="style1"> 1059 - Pope Nicholas II r.1059-1061 College of Cardinals now chooses the Pope, not the nobility all cardinals must be chosen from the Roman clergy</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">AXON DYNASTY - HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE the Saxons took over Germany, Burgundy and most of ItalyFRANCONIAN DYNASTY 1024-1137 Henry IV r.1056-1106 </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Investiture Controversy</a></span><span class="style1"> 1049-1122 Henry IV vs. Pope Gregory VII (r.1073-1085) an argument over who appoints the bishops Henry IV tried to appoint the Archbishop of Milan - the Church won Guelfs (pro-Pope) vs. Ghibellines (pro-Emperor) Concordat of Worms 1122 ended the controversy pope chooses bishops south of the Alps and emperors would help choose and invest bishops north of the AlpsHOHENSTAUFEN DYNASTY 1138-1271 Conrad IV r.1138-1152 - not crowned</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Normans</a></span><span class="style1"> took over most of the Carolingian Empire even though there were Capetian Kings on the throne</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ORMAN RULE (Normandy was a duchy of France) </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">William the Conqueror</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1066-1087 cousin of Edward the Confessor William's wife Matilda was a descendant of Alfred the Great r.871-899 </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Battle of Hastings</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1066 Norman invasion and conquest of England William II Rufus r.1087-1100 - son of the Conqueror </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Henry I</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1100-1135 - son of the Conqueror responsible for introduction of English common lawHOUSE OF BIOIS Stephen r.1135-1154 (Duncan I r.1034-1040 of Scotland murdered by Macbeth r.1040-1057 in 1040)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">NGLO-SAXON RULE Ethelred the Unready r.978-1016 Edmund Ironside r.1016DANISH RULE Canute r.1016-1035 - son of the King of Denmark Harold I r.1035-1040 - son of Canute Hardicanute r.1040-1042 - son of CanuteANGLO-SAXON RULE RESTORED </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Edward the Confessor</a></span><span class="style1"> r.1042-1066 founded </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Westminster Abbey</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1065 Harold II r.1066 - Edward's brother-in-law</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">IRST CRUSADE 1096-99 preached by Pope Urban II and led by the Norman Godfrey of Bouillon who became King of Jerusalem Nicea fell to the crusaders in 1097 Antioch fell in 1098 Jerusalem fell in 1099SECOND CRUSADE 1147-1149 preached by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Bernard of Clairvaux</a></span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Louis VII</a></span><span class="style1"> (of France) and Conrad III (HRE) went on this crusade the second crusade was a failure</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he crusades were holy wars waged to reclaim sacred sites in Jerusalem from Moslem control so that Christians could go there on pilgrimages. For safe passage, other cities on the way from western Europe to the Holy Land also had to be reclaimed (e.g., Nicea, Antioch). The Holy Land would no sooner be in Christian hands than the Moslems would attack and win it back, thus necessitating several crusades. (See Medieval V Essay "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">The Later Crusades</a></span><span class="style1">")</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n England the prize goes to </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Durham Cathedral</a></span><span class="style1"> begun in 1093. Its nave is one third wider that that of St. Sernin and the ceiling (completed by 1130) is the earliest use of stone ribbed vaults -- thus making Durham a proto-Gothic building. Each of the great piers (e.g., pillars or columns) is carved in a different geometric shape. (In a recent survey of 25 experts in the field, Durham Cathedral was voted the second most important, beautiful and influential building in the world --the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Parthenon</a></span><span class="style1"> was first!) Ely Cathedral with its breathtaking painted wooden ceiling and the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Tower of London</a></span><span class="style1">, begun by William the Conqueror in 1078, are the two other most important Norman buildings in England.</span></text>
<text>Also in France, the magnificent Vezelay Cathedral has perhaps the most beautifully decorated barrel vaults (rounded Roman arches) in the world. Other great French Romanesque cathedrals are St. Sernin in Toulouse, Ste. Foy in Conques, St. Etienne in Caen, St. Martial in Limoges, St. Martin in Tours, Autun Cathedral, Tournai Cathedral nave, St. Savin-sur-Gartempe, and Notre-Dame-la-Grande in Poitiers with its extravagantly carved west facade. (The altar end in any cathedral is always referred to as the east end, whether or not it actually faces east.)</text>
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<text><span class="style1">he first great building in this new monumental style was the</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group"> Abbey of Cluny</a></span><span class="style1">. Founded in the tenth century, it was under Abbot Hugh of Semur (abbot from 1049 to 1109) that it became the greatest church in Europe. The huge complex of buildings (the church alone was 415 feet long and 118 feet wide with mosaic figures on the floor) was destroyed in the 19th century. Now only a part of the south transept remains. The term "Cluniac" has almost come to be synonymous with "Romanesque". </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> tremendous spurt of building activity characterized the Romanesque era. Cathedrals both monumental in size and highly decorated implied a new wealth and stability for western civilization. The term "Romanesque" itself refers to this new monumental architectural style (replete with the all-pervading rounded Roman arch) which tried to recapture the massiveness of the great buildings of ancient Rome. In England the term "Norman" is used for the Romanesque era owing to the Norman Conquest of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">William the Conqueror</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1066. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">illiam I was succeeded by his two sons: William II Rufus (r.1087-1100), who was killed by a perfectly aimed arrow through the head in the New Forest, and Henry I (r.1100-1135), who was responsible for the establishment of English common law, the basis of America's legal system. Henry I sent itinerant justices all over England setting up juries of citizens. By Henry's edict one could only be sued after being served with a writ.Henry I was succeeded by his nephew Stephen (r.1135-1154) who in turn was succeeded by the first Plantagenet king, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Henry II</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.1154-1189).</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he great </span><span class="style6">Bayeaux Tapestry</span><span class="style1"> [c.1088] recounts the invasion of England in graphic detail.William I the Conqueror (r.1066-1087) was a masterful ruler. In 1078 he ordered the construction of a great fortress, the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Tower of London</a></span><span class="style1">, and in 1085 ordered a survey of the assets of landowners which provided the basis for taxation; completed in six months, this survey is known as </span><span class="style6">The Domesday Book.</span><span class="style1"></span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he Normans (Normandy was a duchy of France), a warrior people from the northern coastlands of France, crystallized as a distinct group under Duke William of Normandy (c.1027-87), better known as William The Conqueror. The Normans' greatest victory, won in 1066 at the Battle of Hastings (in England), saw the triumph of William the Conqueror over the English king Harold II (r.1066), a Saxon and the brother-in-law of his predecessor Edward the Confessor (r.1042-1066), who founded </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Westminster Abbey</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1065. As William the Conqueror was a cousin of Edward the Confessor, he had the greater claim on the English throne and went to war to claim his right. This French claim to the English throne would see a reverse scenario in </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">the 100 Years War</a></span><span class="style1"> (1337-1453). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">ohn of Salisbury</span><span class="style1"> c.1115-1180 A student of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Peter Abelard</a></span><span class="style1">, John studied at both Paris and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Chartres</a></span><span class="style1"> and served in the papal court as secretary to the Archbishop Theobald of Canterbury. He later fell out of favor with </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Henry II</a></span><span class="style1"> owing to his support of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Thomas Becket</a></span><span class="style1">. [He was present at Becket's murder at Canterbury in 1170.] He served as Bishop of Chartres from 1176-1180. His major works include: </span><span class="style6">Policraticus</span><span class="style1"> (1159 -- a work on politics, court vanities and diplomacy) and </span><span class="style6">Metalogicon</span><span class="style1"> (1159 -- a discussion of the value of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">trivium</a></span><span class="style1"> (i.e., grammar, rhetoric and logic.) He also wrote history and carried on a large correspondence invaluable for the information and insights they contain about the twelfth century. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ceptical by nature, al-Ghazali questioned many of the theological and philosophical positions of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">al-Farabi</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Avicenna</a></span><span class="style1">. He combatted the Aristotelians with his refutations: </span><span class="style6">The Intentions (Opinions) of the Philosophers and The Incoherence of the Philosophers.</span><span class="style1"> al-Ghazali tried to show what philosophy could and could not do. He argued that </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1">'s views were inconsistent with Islamic doctrines and teaching and examined twenty propositions which he believed the Aristotelians had not proved. Inclined to </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">scepticism</a></span><span class="style1">, al-Ghazali has been placed in the long line of sceptics that includes such later philosophers as </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Nicholas of Autrecourt</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Hume</a></span><span class="style1">. Some of his other major writings include: </span><span class="style6">The Deliverance from Error </span><span class="style1">and his monumental work in theology,</span><span class="style6"> The Revival of the Religious Sciences. </span><span class="style1"></span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n later life his interests turned toward mystical speculation. </span><span class="style6">The Healing</span><span class="style1"> was his major work, containing his views on logic, physics, mathematics and metaphysics. Other important writings include: </span><span class="style6">On Definition, The Book of Healing (of the Soul), The Book of Salvation, Logic of the Orientals </span><span class="style1">and the encyclopedic </span><span class="style6">Ash-Shifa</span><span class="style1"> (or </span><span class="style6">Sanatio</span><span class="style1"> ). </span><span class="style5">al-Ghazali (Abu Hamid Mohammed al-Ghazali) </span><span class="style1"> 1058-1111One of the great figures of Islamic religious thought, al-Ghazali was born in Tus, Persia. After an early education in his home city and Jurjan, he went to Nishapur in 1077 to continue his studies and became head of the Nizamiyah school in Baghdad, a leading institution of the day. Active in politics, al-Ghazali exercised great influence in government decisions. He gave up lecturing in 1095 and went to Damascus and other parts of Syria where he lived the life of a Sufi (a Moslem ascetic mystic, often pantheistic [i.e., God is found in everything]), spending most of his time in meditation and spiritual exercises. Persuaded to return to teaching in 1105, he soon left to return to Tus where he founded a monastery and taught Sufism. Over four hundred works are attributed to him in the fields of Islamic law, theology, philosophy, polemics and the beliefs and practices of Sufism. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ighly productive, over two hundred works have been ascribed to him, though in fact about one hundred were actually his. He became known to the Christian world through translations and his </span><span class="style6">Canon of Medicine,</span><span class="style1"> which became the standard medical work in Europe. In Islamic philosophy, Avicenna was equalled only by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Averroes</a></span><span class="style1">; the two are considered the most important Islamic Aristotelians. Avicenna developed a distinctive </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Neoplatonic</a></span><span class="style1"> Aristotelianism and was well known in the West where a sort of "Avicennizing Augustinianism" developed. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Thomas Aquinas</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Roger Bacon</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">John Duns Scotus</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Albertus Magnus</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Maimonides</a></span><span class="style1"> were acquainted with his writings. Strongly influenced by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">al-Farabi</a></span><span class="style1">, Avicenna read Aristotle's </span><span class="style6">Metaphysics</span><span class="style1"> forty times without comprehension until he studied a commentary by al-Farabi.As a metaphysician, Avicenna was interested in "being," which he considered the primary concept. His "flying man" argument proposed that a man, suspended in space and with none of his bodily parts attached, still knows that he exists because of a thinking mind. This is similar to the later concept of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Descartes</a></span><span class="style1">, "I think, therefore I am." Avicenna also developed an argument for the existence of God as a "necessary cause." Avicenna was concerned with theory of knowledge (epistemology) and the manner in which knowledge is obtained. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he major problem with Gabirol is in his terminology. Occasionally using the same term in different ways, his exact meaning is often difficult to establish. In addition to the poems, Gabirol wrote: </span><span class="style6">Fons vitae</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style6">(Fountain of Life</span><span class="style1"> -- his major work); </span><span class="style6">The Improvement of the Qualities of the Soul </span><span class="style1">and</span><span class="style6"> The Choice of Pearls.</span><span class="style1"> The latter two are ethical treatises of a popular nature. </span><span class="style5">Avicenna (Abu Ali al-Husayn ibn Sina)</span><span class="style1"> 980-1037 Perhaps the most famous and influential Islamic philosopher and scientist, Avicenna was originally from Afshana, a village located today in Southern Russia. Avicenna studied the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Koran</a></span><span class="style1">, Arabic literature, Islamic law, logic, mathematics, natural sciences, metaphysics and medicine and became a gifted and able physician at age sixteen before turning to an intensive study of philosophy. His patron was Nuh ibn Mansur, sultan of Bukhara, whom he helped cure of an illness. Following the death of his patron, Avicenna was engaged in a series of different political posts in several regimes, often serving as the chief political official (vizier). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">olomon ibn Gabirol (or Avicebron)</span><span class="style1"> c.1020-c.1070 Jewish </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Neoplatonist</a></span><span class="style1"> philosopher and poet in the Jewish "Golden Age" in Spain. Born in Malaga, he was educated in Saragossa. Gabirol was known by Jewish thinkers and notables of his day, but he did not always get along with them. He became known to the larger world through his philosophic writings, but his reputation in the Jewish community rested on his magnificent Hebrew poems. He composed over three hundred secular and religious poems, and some of the latter became a part of the liturgy of Spanish Jews. (He began to have his poems published when he was only sixteen.) One poem, "The Royal Crown," a poetic version of his cosmology, is of interest to philosophers. Interested in ontology (the nature of being; the existence of God), Gabirol posited a "first essence" called God, or first maker. From "first essence" came Divine will, followed by matter and form and then substances, divided into spiritual substances and corporeal substances. The former were intelligible to the mind, the latter to the senses. A Neoplatonist, the terms Gabirol uses are typical of this view. His views of the created order have placed him as a proponent of the position known as "multiplicity of forms" i.e., several substantial forms exist within a given substance. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n addition to his many sermons and letters St. Bernard's major works include: </span><span class="style6">On Loving God, On Grace and Free Will, On the Degrees of Humility, </span><span class="style1">and </span><span class="style6">On Consideration.</span><span class="style1"> (St. Bernard dogs were named after St. Bernard of Montjoux [c.996-c.1081], the patron saint of Alpinists and mountain climbers.)</span><span class="style5">Hugh of St. Victor</span><span class="style1"> 1096-1141 Scholastic philosopher, theologian, mystic and writer on grammar and geometry. Hugh of St. Victor became an </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Augustinian</a></span><span class="style1"> monk and head of the abbey school of St. Victor's near Paris. His encyclopedic </span><span class="style6">Didascalion</span><span class="style1"> is a guide to education in all the liberal arts and theology and his </span><span class="style6">De sacramentis Christianae fidei </span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style6">(The Sacraments of the Christian Faith)</span><span class="style1"> was a fully developed theological work anticipating the later "Summae" of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">scholastics</a></span><span class="style1">. Of a mystical inclination, Hugh of St. Victor wrote of three stages of the soul, the "eye of the flesh," the "eye of reason," and the third eye that could only be opened by divine revelation. For him, the goal of theology was personal experience of God, not intellectual mastery of dogma.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">t. Bernard of Clairvaux</span><span class="style1"> 1090-1153Theologian, monastic and reformer, born to a noble Burgundian family. In 1113 St. Bernard became the first abbot of the Cistercian monastery of Clairvaux (in Champagne). (He was critical of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Benedictine</a></span><span class="style1"> "Rule.") The Roman Catholic church regards St. Bernard as the last of the "Fathers" of the church. He founded more than 70 Cistercian monasteries and drew up the statutes of the Knights Templar in 1128. (A military order, they lived at the site of</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group"> Solomon</a></span><span class="style1">'s Temple and vowed to protect pilgrims to the Holy Land. Jacques de Molay, the last Grand Master, was condemned on false charges and burned at the stake in 1314.)An ascetic and mystic, St. Bernard opposed </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Peter Abelard</a></span><span class="style1">'s more thoroughgoing </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Neoplatonism</a></span><span class="style1">. It was the saintliness of his character rather than the force of his intellect that made him so influential. (The fact that he supported Innocent II rather than the antipope Anacletus didn't hurt either!) St. Bernard preached the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Second Crusade</a></span><span class="style1">. He was canonized in 1174 and created a "Doctor of the Church" in 1830.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">nterestingly, the importance of his work has been overshadowed by his love affair with Heloise, his 17-year-old pupil at the cathedral school of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Notre Dame in Paris</a></span><span class="style1">. (Abelard was 21 years older!) Her uncle Fulbert, the cathedral canon in whose house Abelard lived, threw him out of the house. Abelard and Heloise fled to Brittany where she gave birth to a son, Astrolabe, and then returned to Paris for a secret marriage. But uncle Fulbert, not very happy, employed "hit men" to castrate Abelard. Having a firm grip on his new situation, Abelard retired to a monastery and Heloise, at his urging, became a nun. Their correspondence remains one of the great sets of love letters. When Abelard died in 1144 acknowledged as the "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Socrates</a></span><span class="style1"> of Gaul," the abbot of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Cluny</a></span><span class="style1"> called him, "a genius, subtle and sharp." Heloise claimed the body of Abelard at his death and buried him. Their ashes lie together at Pere Lachaise in Paris. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> nominalism -- held that universals are merely names representing nothing that really exists realism -- held that universals have a real existence of their own independent of being thought conceptualism -- held that universals are concepts (or non-physical entities) in human minds that have a real existence of their own Abelard devoted his life to teaching and writing and his many works include </span><span class="style6">Logica Ingredientibus</span><span class="style1"> (glosses on logic), </span><span class="style6">Treatise On The Divine Unity And Trinity, Sic et Non</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style6">(For and Against)</span><span class="style1"> - his best known work in which he profers a total of 158 controversial questions on which theological texts disagreed), </span><span class="style6">Christian Theology, An Introduction to Theology, Logica Nostrorum Petitioni, The Story of my Troubles, Dialectica, Scito te ipsum</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style6">(Know Thyself</span><span class="style1"> - a work on ethics), and his last work, </span><span class="style6">Dialogue Between a Philosopher, a Jew and a Christian.</span><span class="style1"> He also produced several exegetical writings and works of devotion. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">eter Abelard </span><span class="style1"> 1079-1142Philosopher, "father of conceptualism," theologian, logician, poet and one of the most controversial figures of his time. Born in Brittany, Abelard was first a knight, a career he gave up to become a student, and then a popular teacher though plagued with controversy throughout his life. Abelard made several enemies, the chief of whom was </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Bernard of Clairvaux</a></span><span class="style1">. The first theologian (in its modern sense) and a gifted logician, Abelard raised the standards of philosophy. He most certainly served as the source for </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Peter Lombard</a></span><span class="style1">'s </span><span class="style6">Sentences,</span><span class="style1"> the first work in systematic theology, and is, with </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Anselm</a></span><span class="style1">, considered one of the first of the "schoolmen" or founders of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Scholasticism</a></span><span class="style1">. Neither a realist nor a nominalist, Abelard sought to reconcile these two positions and viewed general terms or </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">universals</a></span><span class="style1"> as "concepts" which can and must be worked with. This approach gave him the designation of conceptualist. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">lso devoted to Christian </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Neoplatonism</a></span><span class="style1">, many philosophical topics interested Anselm as can be seen in the breadth of his writings. </span><span class="style6">Monologian</span><span class="style1"> (1076) and </span><span class="style6">Proslogian</span><span class="style1"> (1077-1078) deal with the subject of the existence of God, </span><span class="style6">De Grammatico</span><span class="style1"> with semantics and </span><span class="style6">De Veritate</span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style6">De Libertate Arbitrii</span><span class="style1"> on truth and free will. He also wrote </span><span class="style6">Cur Deus Homo (Why God Became Man</span><span class="style1"> ) (1098), a number of theological treatises and left an unfinished work ambitiously titled </span><span class="style6">De Potestate et Impotentia</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style6">(0n Power And Powerlessness), Possibilitate et Impossibilite (Possibility And Impossibility), Necessitate and Libertate (Necessity And Liberty). </span><span class="style1">Upon being told he was about to die, Anselm replied, "If it is His will I will gladly obey, but if He should prefer me to stay with you just long enough to solve the question of the origin of the soul which I have been turning over in my mind, I would gratefully accept the chance, for I doubt whether anybody else will solve it when I am gone." (M.J. Charlesworth, </span><span class="style6">St. Anselm's Proslogian,</span><span class="style1"> Oxford, 1965, p.21. ) Anselm was canonized by being proclaimed a "Doctor of the Church" in 1720. He lies buried next to Lanfranc at Canterbury.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> Neoaristotelian, Anselm applied Aristotelian logic in his arguments. As a proponent of reason, Anselm is best known for his careful delineation of problems. As an ontologist he devised proofs for the existence of God. In his </span><span class="style6">Proslogion</span><span class="style1"> (Chp. 3) he argued that even a fool "is convinced that something exists in the understanding, at least, than which nothing greater can be conceived. For when he [the fool] hears of this he understands it....And assuredly that than which nothing greater can be conceived, cannot exist in the understanding alone. For suppose it exists in the understanding alone: then it can be conceived to exist in reality, which is greater....Hence, there is no doubt that there exists a being than which nothing greater can be conceived, and it exists both in the understanding and in reality....and this being thou art, O Lord, our God." </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">OMANESQUE PHILOSOPHERS AND THEOLOGIANS (1000-1150)(For a more comprehensive listing see "REL/PHIL" grid for each country) </span><span class="style5">St. Anselm of Canterbury </span><span class="style1"> 1033-1109 With </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Peter Abelard</a></span><span class="style1">, considered one of the founders of the philosophical school of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Scholasticism</a></span><span class="style1">, originator of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">ontological</a></span><span class="style1"> argument for the existence of God (see below) and Archbishop of Canterbury. Born at Aosta in the Italian Alps, Anselm became a wandering scholar. He settled in the Benedictine abbey to study with </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Lanfranc</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.1005-1089) at Bec. He became a priest in 1060 and an abbot in 1078. In 1093 he succeeded Lanfranc as Archbishop of Canterbury (r.1093-1109). A gifted and humane teacher and writer, he was a devoted follower of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Augustine</a></span><span class="style1"> of Hippo and has been called "the second Augustine." </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">TTEMPTS AT REFORMThe effects of the Cluniac monastic reforms were felt throughout the medieval church for more than two centuries. A clerical house cleaning took place from the parish level to the papacy and affected more than three hundred affiliated monasteries. Most important was the decision reached at the Lateran Council of 1059 whereby responsibility for the election of a pope was given to the College of Cardinals, ostensibly limiting external interference in papal elections. (This method of papal election continues to this day.) It must be noted that irregularities and rivalries continued, culminating in the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Great Schism II</a></span><span class="style1">. Clerical celibacy was sanctioned, simony (the selling of ecclesiastical office) was condemned and the investiture of the holy Roman emperors by popes was confirmed. By the twelfth century, the great </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">monastery of Cluny</a></span><span class="style1"> had fallen to the twin temptations of riches and power.</span></text>
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<text>The issue was not joined until 1075, when by decree Pope Gregory VII (r.1073-1085) forbid all "lay investiture" (the technical term). Emperor Henry IV replied by making another appointment in Milan. Gregory sent a strong letter of rebuke; Henry called a council and was supported by the German bishops against the pope. Gregory VII responded by excommunicating Henry IV and Henry responded in turn with a defiant letter. In January 1077 Henry presented himself before Pope Gregory VII at Canossa where he stood barefoot in the snow for three days as a penitent. On 28 January 1077 Pope Gregory VII revoked Henry IV's excommunication. The pope was victorious, but only in the short run. The canny Henry had lost a battle but his position ultimately prevailed. In the Concordat of Worms (1122) a compromise was formally agreed upon which established investiture as a joint process. The ring and the staff of office were to be given by the pope or his representative; the other symbols ("temporalities") by the emperor or his representative. As the nation-states grew and became more powerful, this decision was to have even greater effect throughout Europe. </text>
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<text><span class="style1">HE INVESTITURE CONTROVERSY Clergy and bishops were appointed to office in ceremonies that utilized certain types of clothing called vestments; the symbols of office were also given at this time. The dilemma of who selected or appointed these ecclesiastical officers began with the Frankish kings and intermittently caused tension between later popes and monarchs. As the nation-states began to take shape in Europe, monarchs increasingly felt that they had the privilege of appointing and then "investing" these officials. The popes argued that these were church officials and ought to be appointed and sanctioned by Rome. Collectively, this issue is called the Investiture Controversy. As "localism" (i.e., local control vs. control from Rome) in the form of the manor/estate prevailed through the early middle ages, bishops and clergy were often also selected by the lord of the manor without any consultation with Rome. The matter came to a head with Henry IV, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">King of Germany</a></span><span class="style1"> and Holy Roman Emperor (r.1056-1106). He appointed Godfrey of Castiglione archbishop of the prestigious see of Milan in order to protect the access to the passes in the Alps between Germany and Italy. Pope Alexander II (r.1061-1073) refused to acknowledge this appointment, preferring Atto of Milan. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">see </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Philosophical/Theological Summary</a></span><span class="style1">)(see also </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Medieval Philosophy and Religion</a></span><span class="style1">)THE GREAT SCHISM I (East/West split)In 1054 the split between the Eastern and Western churches became permanent. The cardinal sent by Pope Leo IX (r.1049-1054) and the patriarch of Constantinople excommunicated each other. The issue, on the surface, was a disagreement over how the Holy Spirit is connected within the Trinity. The Greek creed states that Holy Spirit "proceeds" from the Father; the Latin church adds "and from the Son." This seems a small matter, but in combination with the underlying political differences between East and West, the split was inevitable. The difference over icons, the loss of southern Italy, the attempt to control the church in Bulgaria, the use of Greek in the liturgy and the renewed strength of the popes in Rome led to the final breakdown and mutual excommunication. The division still prevails, although the mutual excommunication was lifted in 1965. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he independence of voices was made possible by Guido d'Arezzo (c.997-1050) who invented the 4-line staff arranged in thirds (just as in the modern 5-line staff). For the first time accurate notation of music was possible. Guido introduced the new invention in his </span><span class="style6">Micrologus</span><span class="style1"> (c.1030). He also introduced solmization - i.e., providing easily sung syllables for the degrees of the scale. The syllables he introduced were: UT RE MI FA SOL LALater, ut was changed to doh, making "Doe a deer..." in </span><span class="style6">The Sound of Music</span><span class="style1"> possible. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">omanesque organum, also known as St. Martial organum (after the repertory found in the Abbey of St. Martial, Limoges), like </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Carolingian organum</a></span><span class="style1">, was for 2 voices (i.e., 2 lines of music) which alternated with chant. However, in Romanesque organum the upper voice is now independent of the lower voice (i.e., the chant or </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">cantus firmus</a></span><span class="style1">). Romanesque organum was still sung a cappella (i.e., no instrumental accompaniment). Some men would sing the chant in the lower voice while others would sing a faster moving, rhythmically independent line above them, thus decorating the chant in what is known as melismatic style. The upper voice was free-flowing, not metered as in later </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Gothic organum</a></span><span class="style1">.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ilgrims had to be cared for along the way, thus encouraging the development of churches along the main routes of the Crusades. The pilgrim routes to Santiago de Compostela ran through the main pilgrim centers of western, central and southern France to converge beyond the Pyrenees. Architectural and sculptural ideas were transmitted along these routes.</span><span class="style5">St. Nicholas, Novgorod</span><span class="style1"> (founded in Russia in 1113)A </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">unified Russia</a></span><span class="style1"> was a rather new idea and the Tsars felt the need to develop a cultural heritage. Ideas of design were borrowed heavily from the Byzantine church and combined with Western elements to achieve a unique style, most evident in the onion domes and polychromatic exteriors.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">isa Cathedral, Baptistry and Tower</span><span class="style1">The cathedral complex at Pisa, built to celebrate a famous victory, dates from the late 11th century onwards. The cathedral, the campanile or bell tower, the round baptistry and the Campo Santo (cemetery) were conceived as a unified group. The church, the campanile and the baptistry are an arcaded style typical of the northern Italian Romanesque architecture. The apses are on the transept ends of the cathedral and there is a dome over the crossing. The campanile or bell tower is Tuscan-Romanesque and started to lean before construction was well advanced. The earth beneath had settled and efforts to stop the tilt have been unsuccessful to date. (Scottish engineers are putting forward plans for its restoration.) The superimposed arcades that characterize the exterior were designed by a Greek architect. Pisa is an ethnic melting pot of styles because of a diverse population.</span><span class="style5">Santiago de Compostela</span><span class="style1">Spanish prosperity is evident in the surviving churches of the Christian northwest where masonry, stone vaults and articulated ground-plans are more sophisticated than in the north. The supposed tomb of St. James at Compostela is an example of this architectural propensity. This shrine in the far northwestern corner of Spain attracted pilgrims by the thousands. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">t. Marks, Venice </span><span class="style1">(begun in 1063)Venice was in close contact with the Byzantine Empire and the 5-dome plan of St. Marks imitates traditional Byzantine church design. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Mosaics</a></span><span class="style1"> in the Byzantine style decorate the interior of this edifice. It was begun in 1063 as a Ducal Basilica connected with the Doge's Palace. Its plan imitated the sixth-century Church of the Holy Apostle at Constantinople built by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Justinian</a></span><span class="style1">. It is a Greek cross designed on 5 squares, each surmounted by a dome on a high drum, now crowned by a helmet-like structure of wood and copper, which creates a verticality unknown to early Byzantine domes. The exterior was embellished in the Gothic period but the Byzantine elements still dominate. Marble for the columns and walls was imported from the eastern sector of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Byzantine Empire</a></span><span class="style1">.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">peyer Cathedral</span><span class="style1"> c. 1030 to late 11th centuryIt was the burial church of the German emperors and had containing arches round the arcade and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">clerestory</a></span><span class="style1"> derived from the Roman basilica at Trier. Speyer is the earliest surviving groin-vaulted church in the Roman tradition. Bronze doors and decorative themes, also Roman, are evident throughout the cathedral. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Corinthian</a></span><span class="style1"> capitals support the groin vaults. Speyer Cathedral eliminated the elaborate sculpture and decoration of the French and English prototypes. The vaulting, the highest (107 feet) of all Romanesque churches, produces a lofty, elegant, light and orderly interior. Unlike the Roman vaulting, which employed formed concrete and resulted in groined vaults with horizontal crowns, the German technique used masonry arches supported on temporary wooden centering. Each double bay at Speyer was treated as a separate dome. The double ended shape of the cathedral is characteristic of Romanesque cathedrals on the Rhine.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">t. Etienne, Caen</span><span class="style1">The most influential building for Early Gothic architecture, it was begun in 1067 by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">William the Conqueror</a></span><span class="style1"> and completed by the time he was interred there in 1087. A complex system of ribbed vaulting was employed. The innovation at St. Etienne was the introduction of a second transverse rib in the vault, splitting it into six compartments. The six-part vault created a more unified and ethereal interior. The three-part, two tower facade at St. Etienne became the standard for all French Gothic cathedrals. The number 3, representing the Trinity, is embodied in this design and architectural elements with the number 3 repeated in the stories, portals, windows and towers.</span><span class="style5">Autun Cathedral</span><span class="style1">The inscription "Gislebertus hoc fecit" appears under the feet of Christ in the main portal. Unlike earlier projects wherein Christian humility is expressed by artistic anonymity, we find Gislebertus taking full credit for carving the entire portal, the large figures and nearly all the stone capitals himself. He was a bard who carved his tales in stone utilizing elements of abstraction, simplification and ornamentation with great sensitivity.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">otre Dame la Grande, Poitiers</span><span class="style1">Western Romanesque use of sculpture and sculptural ornament overpowers the architecture. The clustered columns are irregular from one side to the other. With all of the architectural excesses, the deeply cut ornamentation is extraordinary in its light and dark effect.</span><span class="style5">St. Foy, Conques</span><span class="style1">A famous pilgrimage site during the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Crusades</a></span><span class="style1">, it was dedicated to the cult of St. Foy, a girl who in late Roman times refused to worship the Roman idols. "She was obstinate in the face of reasonable persuasion, so she was martyred." Her relics were purported to work miracles which aroused jealousy among religious men. A man, blinded by a priest, became a juggler. After visiting the shrine he regained his sight. After the stories were examined by the Roman Church, a favorable report resulted in a cathedral being built at Conques. A gold, Eastern styled reliquary was fashioned, ironically in a figurative style resembling the very idols the child had refused to worship.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">bbey Church of Cluny</span><span class="style1">Considered </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">the grandest of Romanesque buildings</a></span><span class="style1">, this church was designed by a retired abbot named Gunzo. It was commissioned by St. Hugh, Abbot of the Clunaic order. Next to St. Peter's in Rome, it was the largest church, measuring 530 feet long and 100 feet high, with four side aisles, double transepts and seven towers. There is only a fragment remaining but it is possible to understand what the church looked like. The barrel vault was pointed to help assume the outward thrust of the walls. The ribs were left for aesthetic reasons although they might have helped in the construction of the vault. The compound piers are cruciform in cross section. The details are reminiscent of Roman and Islamic architecture.</span><span class="style5">Vezelay Cathedral</span><span class="style1">Vezelay embodies the Romanesque sensibility of ecclesiastical and intellectual movement. Over the portico, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Christ</a></span><span class="style1"> is portrayed as the "Redeemer," as opposed to the "Judge." The interior architecture expresses harmony and openness, the combination of northern and eastern styles. Sculpture abounds of the doors and capitals.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">urham Cathedral</span><span class="style1"> (begun 1093)Located in Northumbria, Durham Cathedral contains one of the most powerful interiors of the entire Middle Ages. The bays are rectangular, not square, and are crossed by diagonal ribs, one set to each bay. Cylindrical pillars are alternated with compound piers. The pillars have large cuts used as design elements recalling designs from the immediate past. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">The interior</a></span><span class="style1"> was thought to have been painted in bright colors. The thickness of the walls relieved the outward thrust of the vaults. The rose window and the towers were added in </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Gothic</a></span><span class="style1"> times.</span><span class="style5">Ely Cathedral nave</span><span class="style1"> 1090-1180An Anglo-Norman elevation with a steady rhythm of carefully defined bays, enormous tribune gallery and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">clerestory passage</a></span><span class="style1">. This monastic cathedral was influential in the formation of the earliest Gothic style. Wood was used as a primary medium during the Middle Ages and by the time Ely Cathedral was built, a shortage of wood led architects and carpenters to build complex structures with shorter timbers. The tie-beams spanning Ely's nave are 60 feet high, meaning that they are extremely thick and heavy. Superimposed arches appear under wooden roofs. The English were not competent figurative sculptors so they indulged in sculpted doors and arcade capitals.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style10">ospel Book of Otto III</span><span class="style1"> c.1000Representing the highest achievement of Ottonian art, it employs the volumetric treatment of the figure, an attention to the abstract pattern with the composition, the use of the animal, the abstract interlaces, the same kind of mixture of fantasy with reality -- all in an unreal space.</span><span class="style5">Tower of London</span><span class="style1">The Tower of London, built of French stone imported to London, was begun in 1078 by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">William the Conqueror</a></span><span class="style1">. Though </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">the central "White Tower"</a></span><span class="style1"> is the structure built by William the Conqueror, today the term "Tower of London" refers to the entire complex of buildings which grew up around the original structure. William the Conqueror chose the site on which the Roman Emperor </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Claudius</a></span><span class="style1"> had built a fort more than a thousand years earlier and traces of the Roman wall can still be seen. It was only towards the end of the 12th century that </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Richard I</a></span><span class="style1"> encircled the Tower with a moat fed by the River Thames.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">uring the Romanesque period society changed profoundly. Though society remained predominately rural, towns became important for </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">guilds</a></span><span class="style1"> of tradesmen and merchants were established.The Universities of Bologna (founded in 968) and Paris (founded in 1150) opened. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Common law</a></span><span class="style1"> began under Henry I of England. The power and influence of the church and papacy became enormous, powerful enough to engage in constant battles with the German </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Holy Roman Empire</a></span><span class="style1">. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he term "Romanesque" refers to the new architectural style of the 11th and 12th centuries that tried to capture the monumentality of the great buildings of Rome in its heyday. The first great building in this new monumental style was the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Abbey of Cluny</a></span><span class="style1"> in France. (See Essay: "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Romanesque Buildings</a></span><span class="style1">"). In England, the Romanesque era is referred to as "Norman" after the Norman conquest of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">William the Conqueror</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1066. </span></text>
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<text>Erik the Red (fl. 980) -- Viking explorer. Colonized Greenland in 985. Leif Eriksson (fl. 1000) -- Viking explorer, son of Erik the Red. Reached North America (probably Labrador/Newfoundland/Novia Scotia) about the year 1000. </text>
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<text>Medical School of Salerno (founded in the 9th Century) Southern Italy was under the hegemony of the enlightened Byzantine Empire at this time. It was their influence that led to the founding of the school. </text>
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<text><span class="style1">ts. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Cyril</a></span><span class="style1"> c.827-869 and (Patriarch) </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Methodius</a></span><span class="style1"> c.825-884 brothers and "Apostles" to the Slavs in Moravia (Czech) invent the Cyrillic alphabet in 863c. 990 St. Vladimir c.956-1015 converted all of Russia to Christianity</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">ohn Scotus Erigena</a></span><span class="style1"> c.810-c.877Odo of Cluny c.879-942 2nd Abbot of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Cluny Abbey</a></span><span class="style1"> (founded in 910), the chief center of reforming currents in the Church - later a famous hostel during the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Crusades</a></span><span class="style1"> commissioned by the pope to rehabilitate the monasteries of Gaul & Italy the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Cluniac reforms</a></span><span class="style1"> of 910 lasted 250 years monks select their own abbot abbots subject only to the pope (no state control) denounced simony: the buying and selling of positions in the Church</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">olorful </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">mosaics</a></span><span class="style1"> and icons, silk, purple dye</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">ICONOCLASTIC CONTROVERSY</a></span><span class="style1"> 726-843 Byzantine Emperor Leo III (r.717-741) ordered all icons removed from churches in 726 icons were restored under </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Patriarch Methodius</a></span><span class="style1"> in 843 and iconoclasm ended</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">alace at </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle)</a></span><span class="style1"> built by Charlemagne's architect Odo of Metz in 796 - the chapel was intended to be a replica of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">San Vitale</a></span><span class="style1"> which </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Charlemagne</a></span><span class="style1"> had seen </span><span class="style7"> </span><span class="style1"> in Ravenna</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Abbey Church of St. Riquier</a></span><span class="style1"></span><span class="style9"><a href="#" class="group">Utrecht Psalter</a></span><span class="style1"> written at Reims in 832</span><span class="style9"><a href="#" class="group">Gospel Book of Charlemagne</a></span><span class="style1"> c.800-810</span><span class="style6">Gospel Book of Archibishop Ebbo of Reims</span><span class="style1"> 816-835</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">reserved the Greek and Latin classics</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Cyrillic alphabet</a></span><span class="style1">, book collecting, use of paper, libraries, grammar schools, arabic numbers, the number "0", algebra, astronomy</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he period of the most important Anglo-Saxon (Old English) manuscripts (all 10th century, c.975)</span><span class="style6">The Exeter Book</span><span class="style1"> -- the greatest collection of Old English poetry, incl. </span><span class="style6">Deor, Widsidth, Christ, Juliana, Guthlac, Riddles, The Ruin, The Seafarer, The Wanderer, The Phoenix, Soul and Body II</span><span class="style1"></span><span class="style6">The Vercelli Book</span><span class="style1"> -- contains </span><span class="style6">Andreas, The Dream of the Rood, Elene, Fates of the Apostles</span><span class="style1"> (by Cynewulf)</span><span class="style6">The Junius Manuscript</span><span class="style1"> -- contains </span><span class="style6">Genesis, Exodus, Daniel, Christ and Satan, Soul and Body I</span><span class="style1"></span><span class="style6">Cottonian MS</span><span class="style1"> -- contains </span><span class="style6">Beowulf</span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style6">Judith</span><span class="style1"></span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he Vikings also raided widely in the 9th century Erik the Red (Erik Thorvaldson) fl. c.980</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Leif Eriksson</a></span><span class="style1"> fl. c.1000 - son of Erik the Red discovered America (Nova Scotia)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ontinual battles with </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Byzantium</a></span><span class="style1">Arabian tales,</span><span class="style6"> A Thousand and One Nights </span><span class="style1">(or</span><span class="style6">The Arabian Nights)</span><span class="style1"> begun c. 900</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he pope and the patriarch of Constantinople constantly excommunicated each otherin 867 </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Patriarch Photius</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.820-891) excommunicated the entire Latin Church and declared Pope Nicholas I (r.858-867) deposed</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Byzantium</a></span><span class="style1"> and the Moslem world still battled - this would continue until 1453 when the Turks wontransmission of Byzantine culture and Christianity to the Slavs (incl. Russia) in the 9th and 10th centuries - 1st to fall under their influence were the Bulgarians Moscow was now known as the "third Rome"</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">uled by the Carolingian dynasty until its breakup after Charles the FatSAXON DYNASTY 919-1024 Otto I the Great r.936-973 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . revived the Holy Roman Empire in 936 from then on the Holy Roman Empire would be a German institution run first by the Hohenstaufens, then the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Habsburgs</a></span><span class="style1"> son of Henry the Fowler r.919-936 1st Saxon HRE but not crowned </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ouis the Pious r.814-840 - his sons divided up the empireCharles the Fat r.881-888 reunited the Carolinian empire at his death it was permanently partitioned and it lost its German and Hungarian territory (</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Vikings</a></span><span class="style1"> captured Normandy in 911) CAPETIAN LINE - Kingdom of FranceHugh Capet r.987-996 founds Capetian line</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">AROLINGIAN DYNASTY - THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Charlemagne</a></span><span class="style1"> r.800-814 crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III on Christmas day 800 A.D. the Holy Roman Empire lasted until 1806 when it was dissolved under pressure from </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Napoleon</a></span><span class="style1"> he vastly extended the Frankish empire into a European empire by adding Germany (Saxony), Italy (Lombard Kingdom annexed in 774), Bohemia (Czech), Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, and some of Spain (Charlemagne's annexation of Germany was the first successful invasion of that country) attacked the Moslems (Spanish Moors) in 778 but his rear guard was defeated (the battle is recounted in the famous </span><span class="style6">Song of Roland</span><span class="style1">, c. 1100)</span></text>
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<text>Danish attacks begin in England c. 835ANGLO-SAXON RULE Alfred the Great r.871-899 fought and defeated the Danes King of Wussex and then 1st Overlord of England Kenneth I r.846-c.858, first King of Scotland defeated the Picts in 844 </text>
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<text><span class="style1">uring the late 9th century, raids gave way to farming settlements. King </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Alfred the Great</a></span><span class="style1"> (r. 871-899) was forced to sign a treaty with the Vikings in 878, stipulating that the invaders would have control of most of the north of England and Scotland. They established one kingdom in York. (There is now a marvelous Viking Centre in York.)Since the Vikings were less successful at establishing settlements in other western European countries they sailed the North Atlantic looking for more plunder. Two of the better known Vikings are Erik the Red fl.c.980 and Leif Eriksson fl.c.1000 who discovered North America (Nova Scotia or "New Scotland"). In the 10th century the piracy of the Vikings ended as the Scandinavians were gradually converted to Christianity. They finally joined the civilized world with its respect for permanence, stability, culture, building, beauty and learning.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">mprovements in ship design allowed the pagan Scandinavians, known as Vikings, to attack the rich kingdoms of western Europe. These barbarians plundered the treasures and killed the priests in one undefended monastery after another. The attack in 793 on the monastery of Lindisfarne (an island off the northeast English coast) was the first. In 807 they attacked the island of Iona (off the western coast of Scotland) and the Abbot of Iona had to flee to Ireland taking the great </span><span class="style9"><a href="#" class="group">Book of Kells</a></span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group"> </a></span><span class="style1"> with him. (See Medieval II Essay "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Celtic Contributions</a></span><span class="style1">")</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">yzantine culture had preserved the classic texts from ancient Greece and Rome. It also produced the cyrillic alphabet (as mentioned above), collected books, made paper, established libraries and grammar schools, introduced Arabic numbers (including the number "0"), and was active in algebra and astronomy. Work with purple dye, precious silks, brilliantly colorful mosaics and icons complete the considerable achievements of this rich eastern civilization.The Pope and Patriarch of Constantinople were constantly excommunicating each other. In 867 Patriarch Photius (c.820-891) excommunicated the entire Roman Church and declared Pope Nicholas I (r.858-867) deposed. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">These battles continued for centuries</a></span><span class="style1"> as did Byzantium's battles with the Moslem world. The conflict ended in 1453 with the fall of Constantinople to the victorious Moslem Turks. The Turks proceeded to rename the city Istanbul.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">uring the 9th and 10th centuries Byzantium transmitted its culture and Christianity to the Slavs (including Russia -- Moscow became known as the "third Rome"). The Bulgarians were the first to fall under Byzantine influence. The brothers, Sts. Cyril (c.827-869) and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Methodius</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.825-884 - Patriarch of Constantinople) were the "Apostles" to the Slavs in Moravia (Czech) and devised the cyrillic alphabet in 863. (In its present form it is the alphabet of the Russian, Bulgarian and other Slavic languages.) St. Vladimir (c.956-1015) went on to convert all of Russia to Christianity c.990.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n the way back from his coronation in Rome Charlemagne stopped in Ravenna where the Byzantine emperors had built large stone buildings decorated with gloriously colorful mosaics. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">San Vitale</a></span><span class="style1"> especially impressed him and on returning to France he decided to have his architect, Odo of Metz, build a replica of it as his palace chapel. This chapel in </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aix-La-Chapelle</a></span><span class="style1"> (Aachen) still stands. Charlemagne filled his palace with treasures from all over the known world -- jewels, ivories, silks. But it is the magnificent </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">illuminated manuscripts</a></span><span class="style1"> (many of them lavishly bound with ivory, gold and jewels) which he commissioned that were his greatest cultural contribution.After the break-up of Charlemagne's empire there emerged something like the Europe we know today.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">harlemagne's empire did not survive him, and in 936 it passed into the German (Saxon) hands of Otto the Great. The Holy Roman Empire (HRE) would remain a German institution until its end. After Charlemagne, the Renaissance </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Habsburgs</a></span><span class="style1"> were its most famous rulers.Perhaps Charlemagne's greatest achievement was the re-establishment of contact with the ancient culture of the Mediterranean world. His teacher and librarian, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Alcuin of York</a></span><span class="style1">, helped him collect and copy ancient manuscripts. In fact, almost our entire knowledge of ancient literature is owing to the collecting and copying that began under Charlemagne. He believed strongly in the value of education, especially an educated laity. (Before Charlemagne, the clergy had been the only class widely educated.)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">harlemagne (742-814) was, according to </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Lord Clark</a></span><span class="style1"> in his magisterial </span><span class="style6">Civilization,</span><span class="style1"> the first great man of action to emerge from the darkness since the collapse of the Roman world. In Rome on Christmas Day 800 Pope Leo III crowned him </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Holy Roman Emperor</a></span><span class="style1"> the first head of an empire that would last over 1000 years. (</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Napoleon</a></span><span class="style1"> forced its dissolution in 1806.)A commanding figure over six feet tall, Charlemagne became the subject of legend. He vastly extended the Frankish empire into a European empire by adding Germany (Saxony) [in the first successful invasion of Germany], Italy (the Lombard kingdom was annexed in 774), Bohemia (Czech), Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia and some of Spain. He attacked the Spanish Moors (Moslems) in 778 but his rear guard was defeated. Written later, the </span><span class="style6">Song of Roland</span><span class="style1"> (c.1100) recounts this campaign.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> In ENGLAND the kings gained power but it became limited (especially under foolish King John who was forced to sign </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Magna Carta</a></span><span class="style1"> in 1215). In FRANCE the kings gained control of the nobility (and kept it for centuries through </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Louis XIV</a></span><span class="style1"> and Louis XV in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries). In GERMANY the kings did not gain control over the nobility. (The kings themselves eventually fell under the control of the Holy Roman emperors).</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he Feudal system was an aristocratic or upper class hierarchy of lords (or suzerains) and their vassals (or knights) who were given fiefs (estates) in return for the protection of their overlords. A king's vassals might even have their own vassals in a system called subinfeudination. The vassals would in turn employ serfs (peasant farmers) to work the land and do the chores.The European nobility of kings, lords and more important vassals began to build castles and manor houses (as in "lord of the manor" or "to the manor born") as seats of power. From these great buildings they defended themselves and were able to demonstrate their enormous wealth and power. The hierarchical ordering on these estates was known as the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">manorial</a></span><span class="style1"> system and was essentially a lower class version of the feudal system.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he sources of truth for him were sense perception, self-evident "first principle," inferential knowledge and what he called "reliable tradition" or historical evidence. The latter guarantees the veracity of Scripture and the teaching of the rabbis. The breadth of Saadia's mind is shown in his work on creation. Here he refutes twelve cosmological theories that are different from his own. These views were held by contemporaries, whom he did not hesitate to challenge. Finally, his writings contain extensive philosophical treatises on Jewish eschatology (end times; the end of the world), the resurrection from the dead, the Messiah, the afterlife and the redemption of Israel. A prolific writer, he translated the Hebrew </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> into Arabic and added commentaries on some of the biblical books. An outstanding scholar and civic leader, Saadia also wrote on Jewish law, liturgy, Hebrew grammar, polemics against opponents and mysticism. His major work is entitled </span><span class="style6">Book of Doctrines and Beliefs.</span><span class="style1"> </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">aadia (or Sa'adya) ben Joseph</span><span class="style1"> 882-942Jewish philosopher, exegete and commentator who became one of the most influential scholars of his time. Born in Egypt, Saadia ben Joseph studied there and in Palestine and later became head of the rabbinic academy at Sura near Baghdad which he re-invigorated to new heights. He spent seven years in exile in Baghdad, but was eventually reinstated. Saadia carried on a constant warfare with the Karaites, who accepted the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> (Hebrew Scriptures) but not the teaching of the rabbis; he was successful in that the Karaites went into decline and lost their influence. In the controversy between the Palestinian and Babylonian authorities over the Jewish calendar, he sided with the Babylonians and, once again, his views prevailed. Saadia based his teaching on the Moslem dialectical theologians, but for him the Scriptures meant the Hebrew Bible, not the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Koran</a></span><span class="style1">. Drawing from </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Plato</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1">, Stoic and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Neoplatonic</a></span><span class="style1"> ideas, his thought has been recognized as eclectic. With the variety of religious views extant, his goal was to provide his fellow Jews with a philosophical base for belief that agreed with the Hebrew Scriptures. He proposed that correct observation, careful analysis and the proper use of logical reasoning could produce knowledge that could be trusted. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">e was inclined toward mysticism but believed that human reason was superior to revelation. For al-Farabi, philosophy enabled man to perceive truth in a purer form than religion which revealed truth in symbolic form.al-Farabi was also interested in prophecy and viewed a prophet as both philosopher and statesman. In the latter role the prophet cares for the common good, governs justly, speaks to and persuades the masses and has a well-developed imagination. While al-Farabi proposed a limited concept of immortality, he was more concerned with political realities, following Plato's concept of an orderly ideal state in which each citizen fulfills his part. In this world view, the prophet in turn is the founder of the ideal state and is responsible for its maintenance. He wrote a utopian political philosophy, </span><span class="style6">The Perfect (or Virtuous) City.</span><span class="style1"> Among al-Farabi's other extant works are: </span><span class="style6">Concerning the Intellect, The Harmony Between the Views of the Divine Plato and Aristotle, On the Vacuum </span><span class="style1">and</span><span class="style6"> The Political Regime.</span><span class="style1"> </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">l-Farabi (Abu Nasr Alfarabi)</span><span class="style1"> c.878-c.950One of the most famous and brilliant Islamic philosophers, al-Farabi is known as "the second teacher" (</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1"> being the first). A leading logician of his day, his work starts the history of Islamic </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Neoplatonism</a></span><span class="style1">. He utilized the philosophies of Aristotle and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Plato</a></span><span class="style1"> to address Islamic questions and influenced later Islamic philosophers including </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Avicenna</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Averroes</a></span><span class="style1">. Abu Nasr al-Farabi was born to Turkish parents in Turkestan. In Baghdad he came in contact with Christian Aristotelians and was later invited to Aleppo (now in Syria) where he served at the court of Sayf al-Dawlah, living a modest and ascetic life. Over one hundred works (most of which have disappeared) are attributed to him, many of which were commentaries on Aristotle. Recently his works in logic have been edited and translated. Concerning God, al-Farabi linked up with Plato's "One" and with Aristotle's "divine thought thinking itself." He viewed God as knowing, true and living, pure intellect and the creator of everything that exists. His cosmology was Neoplatonic and founded on a series of emanations. The first is God contemplating himself, from which follow nine further emanations which al-Farabi considered to be both necessary and eternal. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n his discussion of nature, Erigena included God and the whole of reality but argued that God and nature are not identical. He distinguished between creating and created beings and divided nature into four species. 1) Nature that creates and is uncreated (God) 2) Nature that creates and is created (</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Platonic ideas</a></span><span class="style1">) 3) Nature that is created and does not create (the physical world perceived through the senses) 4) Nature that is not created and does not create (God)Thus, the world begins and ends with God. He also wrote </span><span class="style6">Concerning Predestination,</span><span class="style1"> did other translations and is said to have produced commentaries on </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Boethius</a></span><span class="style1"> and the Gospel of John in the New Testament. Erigena's treatise was condemned for its pantheism in 1210 and 1225.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">see </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Philosophical/Theological Summary</a></span><span class="style1">)(see also </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Medieval Philosophy and Religion</a></span><span class="style1">)CAROLINGIAN PHILOSOPHERS AND THEOLOGIANS (800-1000)(For a more comprehensive listing see "REL/PHIL" grid for each country)</span><span class="style5">John Scotus Erigena</span><span class="style1"> c.810-c.877Irish theologian, translator and commentator on earlier works centering on the synthesis of Christian dogma and Neoplatonic philosophy. John Scotus Erigena is considered the first great metaphysical system builder of the Middle Ages. As head of the palace school of Charles the Bald (r.875-877) in mid-ninth century France, he translated</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group"> Pseudo-Dionysius</a></span><span class="style1"> and was familiar with the Christian Neoplatonists such as </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Gregory of Nazianzus</a></span><span class="style1"> (329-389) and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Gregory of Nyssa</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.330-c.395). His </span><span class="style6">De Divisione Naturae</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style6">(On the Divisions of Nature)</span><span class="style1"> has been called the most original work produced between </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Augustine of Hippo</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Anselm</a></span><span class="style1">. Through this work and his translation of Pseudo-Dionysius, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Neoplatonism</a></span><span class="style1"> gained an even greater foothold in Christian theology. His search seems to have been for insights into the content of revelation in order to develop a synthesis between theology and philosophy. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">AROLINGIAN ORGANUM now, for the first time, 2-part music alternates with chant the upper or organal voice originally sang notes exactly an octave, fifth or fourth above the chant (now known as the cantus firmus) eventually the interval mix became more varied with octaves, fifths and fourths still predominating but using occasional seconds, thirds, sixths and sevenths for variety the two voices sang in parallel, that is, note-against-note style the rhythm was non-metric and rather free, being based on the accentuation of the words Carolingian organum was still (as in chant) sung a cappella (no instrumental accompaniment) by a small group of men Examples of this music can be found in the Montpellier manuscripts and in the treatises: </span><span class="style6">Musica Enchiriadis</span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style6">Scholia Enchiriadis</span><span class="style1"></span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">yzantine Mosaics</span><span class="style1">The medium of mosaic, used extensively by the Romans, yields the greatest evidence of Early Christian art owing to its durability. Glass was used, thus expanding the color possibilities. Gold was also used and was considered to symbolize infinite space. It also had the practical effect of catching the light and amplifying it since the surface was never perfectly smooth and level. The small cubes of glass are called tesserae and, following a carefully organized plan of linear patterns, were pressed into wet plaster a section at a time.</span><span class="style5">Iconoclastic Controversy</span><span class="style1"> 726-843Byzantine Emperor Leo III ordered all icons removed from churches in 726. Icons were restored in 843 and iconoclasm ended. Monks had achieved a dominant position in Europe and were distrusted. Monasteries had built up great wealth through their possessions and properties. In 765, people who possessed these images were tortured, blinded, even killed. Only images of the cross and plants and animals were permitted during this period. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">The controversy</a></span><span class="style1"> was between the Iconoclasts (image breakers) and the Iconodules (those who revered the potency of imagery). The mosaics were scraped off the walls of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Hagia Sophia</a></span><span class="style1">.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">t. Pantaleon, Cologne</span><span class="style1">Only the westwork of this Benedictine Abbey remains and the church was rebuilt during the late Middle Ages. It is built upon the cruciform plan with the two arms of the westwork being of equal length. The towers, square at the base and built into the corners of the westwork, continue as octagonals and end as cylinders. The heaviness of the walls is contrasted to the thin walls employed in early Christian structures. This was done to accommodate the use of more windows to allow for light. The shapes that characterize the architecture of this period are cubes, pyramids, octagons and cylinders.</span><span class="style10">Lindau Gospels</span><span class="style1"> c.870With a cover made of gold and studded with precious and semi-precious stones, smooth to accept light from all points, the </span><span class="style6">Lindau Gospels</span><span class="style1"> are a testament to German craft. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Christ</a></span><span class="style1"> is shown on an elaborately studded cross, quite alive and placid, while above his head half figures representing the sun and the moon are hiding, and in the upper panels float four angels. The Hellenic style of flowing draperies is contrasted to the hardness of the jewels.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style10">ospel Book of Archbishop of Reims</span><span class="style1"> 816-835In sharp contrast to the classical tradition seen in the </span><span class="style6">Gospel Book of Charlemagne</span><span class="style1"> is this passionate manuscript. The illustrations have a tortured quality and the entire surface, including the frame, is energized by chopping strokes, many diagonals and free brushwork.</span><span class="style5">St. Michael's, Hildesheim</span><span class="style1">Built for Bishop Bernward of Hildesheim, St. Michael's has been reconstructed to its 11th-century appearance. It has the westwork with its square tower and the cruciform transept also covered by a square tower. The rounded towers appear on the ends of the transepts. The windows reveal the thickness of the walls which allowed for a </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">high clerestory</a></span><span class="style1">. It seems obvious that since there are three groups of three arches on each side and four piers in all, reference was being made to the Trinity, the twelve Apostles, and the four Evangelists. Bronze doors graced the south portal. Thought to have been supervised by Bernward, they recount the story of man's fall through the murder of Abel on the left door, and the New Testament of man's redemption through Christ on the right. There is but slight indication of ground lines and there are spaces between the figures giving the piece a flavor not unlike the illustrations of the </span><span class="style6">Utrecht Psalter.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style10">trecht Psalter</span><span class="style1">A masterpiece of Carolingian art, it is a book of psalms illustrated at Reims at about 832. The script is Roman uncials without punctuation and the illustrations, quite literal and made by several people on the same page, are uneven in quality. But it would appear that all the work had some passionate direction because of the book's overall impact. The illustrations are like vignettes, having no borders.</span><span class="style10">Gospel Book of </span><span class="style11"><a href="#" class="group">Charlemagne</a></span><span class="style1">Although Charlemagne would not tolerate the worship of images, he recognized their value as a means of communication. This work, which is said to have been found at the knees of Charlemagne when his tomb was opened, consists of full page illustrations made in a style harking back to the Hellenic style. The figures are modelled in light and shadow and the postures are reminiscent of classical representations.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">he upper two levels</a></span><span class="style1"> are encased within one arch, and columns, imported from Italy, are used two over three thus creating a rhythmic effect reminiscent of Islamic art. One interesting feature is that there is a structure like a theater box where Charlemagne could attend Mass privately or, through the other side, could address his public in the courtyard outside.</span><span class="style5">Abbey Church of St. Riquier</span><span class="style1">Because of the agrarian nature of Charlemagne's society, monasteries were more essential as centers of daily life. Though now totally gone, the Abbey church still exists in drawings. It is notable because it is basically a Roman Basilica with two side aisles, used for processing, and choir or square space separating the right and left wings. The choir has become a tradition in Western churches and the church became cross-like from this point on. Another interesting feature is the addition of two "arms" on the west end (churches of this period tended to face east) which rose two or three stories. These were used as small chapels. Also, there were two tall towers built into the corners of this structure with conical roofs thus creating a different skyline than the low lines of the early Christian architecture.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">lthough Charlemagne would not tolerate the worship of images, he recognized their value as a means of communication. The </span><span class="style9"><a href="#" class="group">Gospel Book of Charlemagne</a></span><span class="style6">,</span><span class="style1"> which is said to have been found at the knees of Charlemagne when his tomb was opened, consists of full page illustrations made in a style harking back to the Hellenic style. In sharp contrast to the classical tradition seen in the </span><span class="style6">Gospel Book of Charlemagne</span><span class="style1"> is the passionate manuscript, the </span><span class="style6">Gospel Book of Archbishop Ebbo of Reims.</span><span class="style1"></span><span class="style5">Palace at Aachen: Aix-la-Chapelle</span><span class="style1">Built by Charlemagne's architect Odo of Metz in 796, the chapel is intended to be a replica of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">San Vitale</a></span><span class="style1"> which Charlemagne had seen in Ravenna. With much of Charlemagne's empire in ruins, most notably Rome, he brought classical manuscripts and foreign scholars to his court at Aachen. His architectural accomplishments were limited to embellishments of Italian and Irish monasteries to which he fell heir. Much has been lost of the architecture of the period, but fortunately the chapel of his palace at Aachen is well preserved. It is octagonal, like S. Vitale, but there are crucial differences. Perhaps owing to the limitations of the material — stone — the arches are flat, not concave, and superimposed one behind the other. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">harles Martel</a></span><span class="style1"> ("the hammer"), a Frank, stopped the rapid advance of the Moslems in 732 at Tours. He gave his name and his son, Pepin the Short, to the Carolingian dynasty which replaced the weak kings who had preceded him. Pepin's son, known as Charles the Great or </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Charlemagne</a></span><span class="style1">, was crowned on Christmas day in the year 800 in Rome. This did not altogether please the Byzantine emperors who felt that they had title to Rome. He moved his capital to Aachen in Germany and his empire became known as the Holy Roman Empire. The Carolingian emperor ruled with an equal power over earthly things as the pope ruled over spiritual matters. However the fact that the pope also was a temporal leader led to some conflict. Roman cities were largely abandoned and in ruins. Charlemagne brought classical scholars to Aachen as well as manuscripts and fragments of artworks. The art of calligraphy was raised to new heights because of the sanctity of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1">. The Palace at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) built by Charlemagne's architect Odo of Metz in 796 was intended to be a replica of San Vitale which Charlemagne had seen in Ravenna. Though now totally gone, the Abbey church can still be seen in drawings. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n Christmas Day 800 </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Charlemagne</a></span><span class="style1"> was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III. Charlemagne's dynamism and influence were so great that almost a whole era, the "Carolingian" (Charles = Carol in Latin), was named after him. Unfortunately for the Frankish Carolingian dynasty, Charlemagne's sons and descendents were not up to their father's standard (how typical!) and, in 936, a Saxon, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Otto I the Great</a></span><span class="style1">, revived the Holy Roman Empire when the Carolingian dynasty fell apart. Hence the term "Ottonian" for the end of the era. The Holy Roman Empire would remain in German hands, passing eventually to the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Habsburgs</a></span><span class="style1">, until 1806 when </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Napoleon</a></span><span class="style1"> forced its dissolution. </span></text>
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<text>beds become popular in France and Germany c.750water wheels for driving mills in use all over Europe c. 700Easter eggs come into use among Christians c. 700</text>
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">ohammed</a></span><span class="style1"> 570-632 born in Mecca in 610 hears a message from the angel Gabriel telling him he is a prophet of Allah and founds Islam </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Koran</a></span><span class="style1"> c.625 - Mohammed's teachings Islam is the 3rd great monotheistic religion after Judaism and Christianity in 622 Mohammed moves from Mecca to Medina in the Hegira - starts to convert the Arabs and begins his jihads or holy wars the churches of Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria lost to the Christian faith with the Moslem expansion into the Arab lands, North Africa, Turkey and Spain - the Visigoth state of Iberia was overthrown in 711 by the Moslem Berbers or Moors and Cordoba became the capital of western Islam </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">t. Alcuin of York</a></span><span class="style1"> c.737-804 - scholar left his monastery in York to aid Charlemagne's revival of learning in 782; taught Charlemagne</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">t. Aidan</a></span><span class="style1"> d.651 - Irish went from Ireland to Iona (an island off the western coast of Scotland) and then went to Lindisfarne (an island off the eastern coast of England) c. 635</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Alcuin of York</a></span><span class="style1"> c.737-804 - scholar left his monastery in York to aid </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Charlemagne</a></span><span class="style1">'s revival of learning in 782 taught CharlemagneSynod of Whitby adopts Roman Catholic (vs Celtic) faith in 664</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">ome of the Rock</a></span><span class="style1"> built in Jerusalem c. 660 </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Abraham</a></span><span class="style1">'s sacrifice site site of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Solomon</a></span><span class="style1">'s Temple site of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Mohammed</a></span><span class="style1">'s ascent into heaven </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">aedmon fl.658-680 - Poems c.670 - earliest English Christian poet</span><span class="style6">Beowulf</span><span class="style1"> c.700 epic poem written in Old EnglishThe Venerable Bede (St. Bede) c.673-735 </span><span class="style6">Ecclesiastical History of the English People</span><span class="style1"> c.750 written in Latin 1st English historian - buried in </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Durham Cathedral</a></span><span class="style1">Cynewulf fl. c.750 - Anglo-Saxon poet</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he richest, most popular and civilized city in the Christian worldconstant battles with the Muslim world(See Medieval III Essay "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Byzantium</a></span><span class="style1">")</span></text>
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group"></a></span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Charlemagne</a></span><span class="style1"> r.768-814 1st successful invasion of Germany added Germany (Saxony), Italy (Lombard Kingdom annexed in 774), Bohemia (Czech), Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia and some of Spain attacked the Moslems (Moors) in Spain in 778 but his rear guard was defeated (the tale of the battle is told in the</span><span class="style6"> Song of Roland</span><span class="style1">, c. 1100) 800 Crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III in Rome, Dec. 25 in Germany, the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Vikings</a></span><span class="style1"> invaded c. 800 in Italy, the Lombards ruled 568-773 (</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Pope Gregory</a></span><span class="style1"> [r.590-604] made peace with them) in 774 Charlemagne makes himself King of the Lombards and adds Italy to the Holy Roman Empire</span></text>
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<text>FRANKISH KINGDOM (Merovingian line) includes France, NW Germany, Netherlands Pepin the Younger r.687-714 reunited the Frankish empire in 687 Charles Martel r.714-741 conquered Bavaria & Burgundy and repulsed the Moslem attack on Tours in 732, thus ending the last great Moslem invasion of Europe outside of SpainCAROLINGIAN DYNASTY (2nd Frankish Dynasty) Pepin the Short r.751-768 1st King of the Franks and first Carolingian ruler "Donation of Pepin" = the Papal States (now reduced to Vatican City)</text>
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<text><span class="style1">nglo-Saxon kingdoms (Heptarchy) of Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Essex, Mercia, East Anglia, Northumbria</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Vikings</a></span><span class="style1"> attack England c. 790 and Ireland c. 800 (and Germany c. 800)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> 632 Mohammed died -- the Moslems believe that he rose bodily to heaven from the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Dome of the Rock</a></span><span class="style1"> in Jerusalem (built c.660), which was also the scene of Abraham's thwarted sacrifice of Isaac and the site of Solomon's Temple 633 by this time the churches of Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria were lost to the Christian faith with the Moslem expansion into the Arab lands, north Africa, Turkey and SpainThe later medieval crusades (the First Crusade began in 1096) were Christian holy wars which attempted to free the holy places in Jerusalem from the Moslems so that Christians could go there on pilgrimages. (See "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">The Early Crusades</a></span><span class="style1">" and "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">The Later Crusades</a></span><span class="style1">")(See "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Medieval Islam</a></span><span class="style1">" in the Medieval Rel/Phil Intro)</span></text>
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<text>Chant is monophonic - i.e., one a cappella (no instrumental accompaniment) melodic line sung by several monks standing around a large book of chants, usually propped up on a large and often ornate music stand. The melodies, moving by step rather than with great leaps, are ideally suited to the human voice and the glorious acoustics of medieval cathedrals.</text>
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<text><span class="style1"> AMBROSIAN CHANT in Milan (St.Ambrose became Bishop of Milan in 374) GREGORIAN CHANT in Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . It was Pope </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Gregory the Great</a></span><span class="style1"> (590-604) who ordered a definitive collection of chants to be made. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Charlemagne</a></span><span class="style1">, in 789, ordered all of the churches under his influence to adapt the Roman or Gregorian rite or liturgy. Thus the triumph and consequent fame of Gregorian chant. (In </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">1054</a></span><span class="style1"> controversy over this insistence on uniformity led to the great east/west split in the Church and only in 1965 was the mutual excommunication lifted.)</span></text>
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<text>Religious chanting existed as a part of both Greek and Jewish worship. The early Christians took over many of the Jewish chants familiar to them. These chants, comprised of many melodic formulae, were adapted for Christian usage by setting new texts to old tunes - just as"Greensleeves" became the hymn, "What Child Is This".In the early Christian period there are records of chanting in the Syrian, Armenian and Coptic liturgies or services. In Europe proper, five main geographical repertories of Christian chant developed. BYZANTINE CHANT in Greece MOZARABIC CHANT in Spain GALLICAN CHANT in France</text>
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<text><span class="style1"> The</span><span class="style6"> Book of Kells</span><span class="style1"> was taken back to the Monastery of Kells in Ireland when the Abbot of Iona fled the Viking invasion in 807. It is now in the library of Trinity College, Dublin. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Celtic Cross</a></span><span class="style1"> with its extravagant decorations There were said to have been 360 large stone Celtic crosses on the island of Iona, all but three of which were thrown into the sea during the Reformation. The three left are St. Martin's Cross, McClean's Cross and St. John the Evangelist's Cross.These are the earliest great works of western art after the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">collapse of the Roman Empire</a></span><span class="style1">. The churches in Ravenna and St. Mark's in Venice are really examples of eastern or Byzantine art and architecture.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ONTRIBUTIONS OF THE CELTS Monasticism and the monastic tradition and their passion for learning and art. </span><span class="style9"><a href="#" class="group">The Book of Durrow</a></span><span class="style1"> (Irish c.680) the earliest complete medieval illuminated manuscript </span><span class="style9"><a href="#" class="group">The Lindisfarne Gospels</a></span><span class="style1"> (English c.700) </span><span class="style9"><a href="#" class="group">The Book of Kells</a></span><span class="style1"> (Scottish c.750) The full-page illuminations are more numerous and richly decorated than any other manuscript, even later Islamic manuscripts. Almost all of the text pages are studded with initials large and small and often with animals. (Letters that turn into animals or vice versa are called zoomorphic forms.) </span></text>
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<text>St. Columba then took his passion for art and learning to the island of Lindisfarne (off the northeastern coast of England) where he established another monastery and preached to the Picts (who were very impressed when he drove a monster from the river Ness by the sign of the cross). He then went to the European mainland and founded more monasteries in Germany, the Netherlands and northern France. Around 635, St. Aidan (d.651) went from Ireland to Iona and then to Lindisfarne where he continued the establishment of missionary centers throughout northern Britain.</text>
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<text><span class="style1">hile the barbarian hoards were devastating western Europe and the "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">dark ages</a></span><span class="style1">" had descended, the lone light of civilization with its love of permanence, stability, learning and beauty was kept alive by the Celts. After St. Patrick (c.390-c.460), the next great figure in western civilization was St. Columba (c.521-c.597) who, in 563, after founding monasteries at Derry and Durrow in Ireland, left Ireland to go to Iona, an island off the western Scottish coast, and established the great monastery there. It was on Iona that the stupendous </span><span class="style6">Book of Kells</span><span class="style1"> was written c. 750. (If Ireland was the source of Celtic monastic Christianity, Iona was the center of it.) </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ith the death of the Emperor </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Justinian</a></span><span class="style1"> in 565 and the advent of Islam the world split irreparably into East and West. Rome had ruled all the way up to Scotland (i.e., Hadrian's Wall). In about 50 years after Mohammed's death (in 632) the Classical world was overrun by barbarians.The old source of civilization was sealed off and if a new western civilization was to be born it would have to face the Atlantic. And that is where the first stirrings of western civilization began -- with the Celtic Christians in Ireland, Scotland (Iona), England (Lindisfarne) and Wales. Ireland and the Celts had never been part of the Roman Empire. St. Patrick (a Briton) had gone to Ireland in 432. (See Medieval I Essay "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Celtic Beginnings</a></span><span class="style1">")</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">t. Alcuin of York</span><span class="style1"> c.737-804Northumbrian scholar (the foremost of his time), cleric, poet and educator who became the head of Charlemagne's palace school at Aachen and chief advisor in religious and educational matters to Charlemagne's court. Alcuin also made significant reforms in the Roman Catholic liturgy and re-edited the Latin Vulgate. He spent the first 50 years of his life in Yorkshire where he became the headmaster of the York cathedral school in 778. After meeting </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Charlemagne</a></span><span class="style1"> at Parma in 781, he agreed to come to Aachen and subsequently organized the curriculum, instituted a library and helped establish the school as a great center of learning, inspiring the Carolingian renaissance. Alcuin left Aachen in 796 for the Abbey of St. Martin at Tours where he became abbot. His writings include works on philosophy, theology and education.</span><span class="style5"></span><span class="style1"></span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ELTIC ERA PHILOSOPHERS AND THEOLOGIANS (600-800)(For a more comprehensive listing see "REL/PHIL" grid for each country)</span><span class="style5">St. Isidore of Seville</span><span class="style1"> c.560-636Last of the Western Fathers of the church, encyclopaedist, theologian and Archbishop of Seville. Almost an exact contemporary of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Gregory I</a></span><span class="style1">, Isidore's </span><span class="style6">Sentences</span><span class="style1"> (brief statements of doctrine) became the standard theological textbook in the West until the twelfth century. His </span><span class="style6">Entymologies</span><span class="style1"> is a vast encyclopedia of general knowledge and remained an important source of knowledge of antiquity throughout the Middle Ages. Considered the most learned man of his time, Isidore also produced works in linguistics, history, cosmology and natural science. </span><span class="style5"></span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">here was also a political element to the controversy in that there was an attempt to control the growing monastic movement which tended to be independent of any Eastern Emperor. The monasteries resisted, believing that any decisions of religious issues should be made by ecclesiastical authorities, not by Emperors. THE DONATION OF </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">CONSTANTINE</a></span><span class="style1"> In the middle of the 8th Century there appeared what is acknowledged to be one of the great forgeries of Western history. Based on a supposed healing of Constantine from leprosy by Pope Sylvester I (r.314-335), the letter is purported to be from the Emperor himself, expressing his gratitude. In the letter, Rome is assigned jurisdiction over Antioch, Assyria, Constantinople, Jerusalem, all of Italy and "provinces, places and civitates of the Western regions" and Constantine supported Rome's claim of universal authority within the church and over secular rulers. Highly political, the forged document was tremendously influential in supporting the papal claims. In the 15th century, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Nicholas of Cusa</a></span><span class="style1"> showed the letter to be a forgery.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n a series of discourses in 726-730, John defended the use of icons and with assistance from Theodore of Studium (759-826), clearly defined their argument. They argued that the Gospels picture Christ in words; icons are analogous to a likeness of Christ but are not an equivalent nor a substitute for Him. Icons are testimonies, means of access to God and as such, were not idols. Their opponents argued that the veneration of any icon was idolatry. Timothy Ware in </span><span class="style6">The Orthodox Church</span><span class="style1"> (Penguin Books, 1963, pp.41-42) provides an excellent summary of the argument of John of Damascus. The Iconoclasts, by repudiating all representations of God, failed to take full account of the Incarnation. They fell, as so many Puritans have done, into a kind of dualism. Regarding matter as a defilement, they wanted a religion freed from all contact with what is material; for they thought that what is spiritual must be non-material. But this is to betray the Incarnation, by allowing no place to Christ's humanity, to His body; it is to forget that man's body as well as his soul must be saved and transfigured. The Iconoclastic controversy is thus closely linked to the earlier disputes about Christ's person.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">see </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Philosophical/Theological Summary</a></span><span class="style1">)(see also </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Medieval Philosophy and Religion</a></span><span class="style1">)EAST AND WEST; THE ICONOCLASTIC CONTROVERSY The threat of Islamic invasion (see essay </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">The Rise of Islam</a></span><span class="style1">) and control of Constantinople was turned back at the very gates of the city by the Eastern or Byzantine Emperor Leo III (r.680-741). Roman control over the area was reasserted by Leo and by his son Constantine V (r.741-775). Leo also instituted and enforced a policy forbidding the veneration of icons, painted or sculpted images of Christ, the Virgin Mary, angels and saints. Thus began </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">a lengthy theological and political conflict</a></span><span class="style1"> which would further divide the Eastern and Western churches. People, especially the monks, in Italy and the East resisted the decision. Two major figures also opposed the decision, Pope Gregory II (r.715-731) and John of Damascus (c.676-c.754). Leo III tried unsuccessfully to depose the former. John of Damascus' work, </span><span class="style6">The Fountain of Knowledge,</span><span class="style1"> which represented the whole Greek theological tradition to his time and set the standard, still consulted today, for eastern orthodox Christianity. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">kellig Michael</span><span class="style1">On a steeply sloped island off the west coast of Ireland there is a monastery dating to the eighth century. It consists of simple beehive structures which served to house the monks, a general dining area, and a chapel. Because of the inaccessibility of this spot, many of the original structures remain. Since the island rises to some 700 feet and is accessible only by sea, the monks had to be self sufficient and grow and raise all their foodstuffs. Near the eye of the needle, as the pinnacle is known, lies the remains of a </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Celtic cross</a></span><span class="style1">, broken during the Reformation. It was thought to have been thrown to sea but fortunately remained buried until its recent discovery. These crosses employ the abstract geometric interlace motif.</span><span class="style5">Dome of the Rock</span><span class="style1">Omar I built a mosque on the ruins of a temple in Jerusalem a small shrine to enclose the rock upon which Abraham was supposed to have ascended into heaven. It was rebuilt towards the end of the seventh century by 'Abd al-Malik with decorative glass mosaics much like </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Byzantine mosaics</a></span><span class="style1">. The wooden dome was originally covered in gold leaf; it is now aluminum sheeting!</span></text>
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<text><span class="style10">he Book of Durrow</span><span class="style1">Made during the seventh century in Northumbria, the </span><span class="style6">Book of Durrow</span><span class="style1"> contains three decorative motifs: the animal interlace, the abstract interlace and the pure geometric. It shows the influence of nomadic tribes and Vikings in the use of the interlocking lines. (See also the capitals of the basket-like columns in </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">San Vitale</a></span><span class="style1"> in Ravenna.) The decorative pages also use symbolic representations for such things as the numbers of the Gospels and the Trinity.</span><span class="style10">Lindisfarne Gospels</span><span class="style1">Named after the location of their making and more complex than the </span><span class="style6">Book of Durrow.</span><span class="style1"> Symbols are filled with abstract interlace, imagery translated into a geometric but recognizable equivalent.</span><span class="style10">The Book of Kells</span><span class="style1">Initial letters given exceptional importance because they were the words of God and the prophets. Diminishing curves utilize circles within circles and after contemplation, reveal rather playful introductions of naturalistic figures (e.g., animals) and imply a narrative.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">eltic and Gregorian Middle Agesfl. 600-800 The year 600 was chosen as a general date to begin this age because Pope </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Gregory the Great</a></span><span class="style1">, after whom </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Gregorian chant</a></span><span class="style1"> is named, was Pope in that year. (Actually, he was Pope from 590-604.) Also, the first of the great Celtic illuminated manuscripts, </span><span class="style9"><a href="#" class="group">The Book of Durrow</a></span><span class="style1"> (Irish c.680) was written in the seventh century. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he Academy, Athens -- School of higher learning founded by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Plato</a></span><span class="style1"> in 387 B.C. Closed by the Christian Byzantine Emperor </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Justinian</a></span><span class="style1"> in 529 A.D. because it was pagan. Many of the scholars fled to Persia where they continued to flourish.The Lyceum, Athens -- School of higher learning founded by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1"> in 335 B.C. Closed by the Christian Byzantine Emperor Justinian in 529 A.D. because it was pagan. Many of the scholars fled to Persia where they continued to flourish. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">oethius</a></span><span class="style1"> 480-524 </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Benedict</a></span><span class="style1"> c. 480-c.547 began Western monasticism in Monte Cassino in 529 (</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Basil</a></span><span class="style1"> 329-379, had begun monasticism earlier in the East) began Benedictine order</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Gregory I</a></span><span class="style1"> the GreatDionysius Exiguus c.500-c.560 Roman theologian, mathematician, scholar and monk; in his </span><span class="style6">Cyclus Paschalis</span><span class="style1"> (525), prepared for Pope John I, he introduced the method of dating years A.D. from the birth of Christ; many scholars think he was off c.7 years, thus Christ would have to have been born c.7 B.C.!; his collection of canon law, </span><span class="style6">Collectio Dionysiana,</span><span class="style1"> was used for several centuries </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">t. Patrick</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.390-c.460) a Briton - went to Ireland in 432</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Columba</a></span><span class="style1"> (c.521-c.597) Irish - went to Iona (off the coast of Scotland) and Lindisfarne (off the coast of England) from Ireland in 563St. David (c.520-c.600) a Welshman - converted Wales to Christianity in the 6th century </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Augustine</a></span><span class="style1"> of Canterbury (d.c.604) a Roman - sent to England by Pope Gregory in 597 founded Canterbury - 1st Archbishop of Canterbury he baptized King Ethelbert of Kent (c.552-616) in 597</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he concept of the Roman dome was coupled with the internal use of brilliantly colorful </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">mosaics</a></span><span class="style1"> -- these can be seen in the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Hagia Sophia</a></span><span class="style1"> ( built c. 537 ) with its huge dome, and in Ravenna, Italy in the Byzantine-style </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">San Vitale</a></span><span class="style1"> (built c.526-547)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">pollinaris c.431-475 - poetCassiadoris c. 490-583 - Roman historian - </span><span class="style6">Chronica</span><span class="style1"> revived Classicism (Greek and Latin authors) spoken Latin gradually broke down into local "Romance" languages, the "vernacular" tongues - French, Italian, Spanish</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he richest, most civilized city in the Christian world536 </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Justinian</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.527-565) eastern Emperor recaptured Rome in 536 and Ravenna in 540 and drove out the Ostrogoths Justinian Code of Civil Law 529(See Medieval III Essay "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Byzantium</a></span><span class="style1">")</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">76 - Saxon Odoacer r.476-493 1st King of Italy - captured Rome and Ravenna deposed the last western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustus489 - Ostrogoth Theodoric r.474-526 killed Odoacer536 - </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Justinian</a></span><span class="style1"> r.527-565 recaptured Rome (and Ravenna in 540)568-773 - Lombards invade Italy590-604 - Pope Gregory r.590-604 (after whom </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Gregorian chant</a></span><span class="style1"> is named) made peace with the Lombards (See Essay "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">End of the Roman Empire</a></span><span class="style1">")</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">92 - Theodosius I r.379-395 last sole Emperor of east and west made Christianity the official religion of the empire and began to persecute the pagans410 - Visigoth</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group"> Alaric</a></span><span class="style1"> r.395-410 - sacked Rome Emperor Honorius of the west moved to Ravenna Visigoths rule in Spain from 412-711451 - Attila the Hun r.434-453 devastated Gaul and drove to Rome Pope Leo the Great r.440-461 prevented his sacking Rome455 - Vandal Gaiseric r.428-477 - sacked Rome</span></text>
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<text>FRANKISH TRIUMPH c. 500 Frankish kingdom (the Franks were another Germanic tribe -- Merovingian line), occupies large areas of France, NW Germany, NetherlandsClovis r.481-511 1st Frankish leader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . on his death the Frankish empire was divided among his sons</text>
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<text><span class="style1">NGLO-SAXON RULE REPLACED ROMAN RULE Scotland, Wales and Ireland remained Celtic [</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">King Arthur</a></span><span class="style1"> c. 475-537 - a Christian Celt (Briton) defeated the Angles, Saxons and Jutes as well as the Picts (north British) and Scots (Gaelic)]ANGLO-SAXON (ENGLISH) TRIUMPH BY 600 Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (Heptarchy) of Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Essex, Mercia, East Anglia, Northumbria </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ELTIC PERIOD ENDS the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Celts</a></span><span class="style1"> (Britons, Gauls) invaded Britain c. 1000 B.C. from western Europe north of the Alps - their priests had been the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Druids</a></span><span class="style1"> when the Roman troops pulled out of Britain c. 410-436 in order to defend Rome against the Visigoths, Celtic Britain was invaded by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Angles</a></span><span class="style1"> (Germanic-Danish) [England=the land of the Angles] </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Saxons</a></span><span class="style1"> (Germanic-west Germans) </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Jutes</a></span><span class="style1"> (Germanic-Frankish)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he Celts were originally western and central European tribes made up of Britons and Gauls. King Arthur (c.475-519) was a Christian Briton who defeated the Picts (north British tribes), Scots (Gaelic tribes), Angles (Germanic-Danish tribes), Saxons (west Germanic tribes) and Jutes (Germanic tribes).The Angles, Saxons and Jutes had invaded England in the 5th century A.D. when the Roman legions were withdrawn to defend Rome from the barbarian invasions. (See Essay "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">End of the Roman Empire</a></span><span class="style1">") Anglo-Saxon rule then replaced Roman rule in England.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he Celts (tribes which originated c. 700 B.C. and came to Ireland c. 350 B.C.), unlike the barbarians and Vikings, had an energy and zeal for civilization, e.g., permanence, stability, learning and beauty. (See Medieval II Essay "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Celtic Contributions</a></span><span class="style1">") They had a great fervor for religion and it was transferred to the service of Christianity when St. Patrick (c.390-c.460) came to Ireland in 432 A.D. (The Celtic priests were called Druids.) St. Columba (c.521-c.597) established a monastery in Iona (an island off the western Scottish coast) in 563 and then went to Lindisfarne (an island off eastern English coast) and the European mainland to help establish the monastic movement which kept civilization alive in the darkness of barbarian rule. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Augustine</a></span><span class="style1"> (d.c.604) went to England in 597 and St. Aidan (d.651) to Iona and Lindisfarne. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> 527-565 - Justinian was the eastern emperor and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">the last great ruler in Italy</a></span><span class="style1">. He recaptured Rome in 536 and Ravenna in 540 and ushered in the "Golden Age" of Byzantine art (c.500-600) and Byzantine rule in Italy. 568-774 - The Lombards ruled Italy. Pope </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Gregory</a></span><span class="style1"> (after whom </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Gregorian chant</a></span><span class="style1"> is named) made peace with them c. 600. 774-814 - Charlemagne became (on Christmas Day 800) the first HRE (Holy Roman Emperor). (He had been King of the Franks.) The Holy Roman Empire would last until 1806 when </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Napoleon</a></span><span class="style1"> forced its dissolution.(The last eastern [</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Byzantine</a></span><span class="style1">] Emperor, Constantine XI was killed in 1453 when Constantinople fell to the Turks.).(The Ottoman or Turkish Empire lasted from 1453 until 1923 when the Republic of Turkey was declared with Kemal Ataturk as its first president.)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> 410 - Visigoth King Alaric sacked Rome and Emperor Honorius of the west moved to Ravenna 451 - Attila the Hun devastated Gaul (France) and drove to Rome but was in turn defeated by the Ostrogoths 455 - Vandals sack Rome again 476-489 - Saxon Odoacer, the first King of Italy, captured Rome and Ravenna and deposed the last western emperor, Romulus Augustus in 476. (</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Charlemagne</a></span><span class="style1"> reestablished the Holy Roman Empire in 800.) 489-526 - Ostrogoth King Theodoric was the second King of Italy. He captured Rome and Ravenna (killing Odoacer) and made Ravenna his capital.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> 410 - Rome began its decline with the barbarian invasions </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">The Church</a></span><span class="style1"> was the only unifying force. THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS HUNS - Asian, Turco-Mongol HUNgarians </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Attila the Hun</a></span><span class="style1"> devastated Gaul (France) in 451 and drove to Rome but was defeated by the Ostrogoths GOTHS (from which the term "Gothic" derives) - Germanic tribes VISIGOTHS - eastern Goths, settled in Italy OSTROGOTHS - western Goths, settled in France and Spain VANDALS - Germanic tribes SAXONS - Germanic tribes LOMBARDS - Germanic tribes</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1"> 330 - Constantine moved the imperial capital to the old Greek town of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Byzantium</a></span><span class="style1"> and renamed it Constantinople (it became Istanbul in 1453 when the Turks moved in) It was perfect for trade between east and west, perfect for self-defense and perfect for controlling both the eastern and western frontiers of the empire. 364 - The Roman Empire was split into eastern and western empires. Valentinian I was the western Emperor and Valens, his brother, the eastern Emperor 392 - Emperor Theodosius I (388-395) briefly reunited the Roman Empire and made Christianity the official religion of the Empire in 392 and then began to persecute the pagans.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">onstantine (r.307-337) </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">the last great Roman emperor</a></span><span class="style1"> and the</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group"> first Christian emperor</a></span><span class="style1"> 313 Edict of Milan - ended the official Roman persecutions of the Christians and put Christianity on a full legal equality with other Roman religions 325 The Council of Nicea the first great ecumenical council, summoned by Constantine, attacked the powerful </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Arian</a></span><span class="style1"> heresy and established an early version of the Nicene Creed (the "Credo" of the Mass) as a basic Christian codification of beliefs (the version in use today was adopted at the Council of Constantinople in 381) -- Constantine's mother, St. Helen, made excavations in Jerusalem and supposedly brought back the true Cross to the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Hagia Sophia</a></span><span class="style1"> in Constantinople.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">regory I actively pursued the missionary goals of the church beyond the Alps and, in 597, sent St. Augustine of Canterbury (the first Archbishop of Canterbury) to establish the Christian religion in England. He strengthened Rome in its continuing struggle with Constantinople over issues of church power and sought to improve the level of priestly moral standards. His ideals were high, as shown in his </span><span class="style6">Pastoral Rule</span><span class="style1"> (c.591), a manual of conduct for bishops. He encouraged monastic spirituality in his </span><span class="style6">Exposition on the Book of Job</span><span class="style1"> and wrote his four volume </span><span class="style6">Dialogues on the Life and Miracles of the Italian Fathers</span><span class="style1"> (c.593) which remained the most popular work on popular piety well into the Middle Ages. Responsible for the reform of the Mass and the revision and codification of the texts of liturgical chant, he gave the Roman schola cantorem (i.e., school of singing) its definitive form. For these reasons, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Gregorian chant</a></span><span class="style1"> is named after him. Not a seminal thinker, Gregory was influenced mostly by the writings of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Augustine of Hippo</a></span><span class="style1">. His own writing, however, set the tone and form for Christian belief and practice at a critical time in the life of the Western Church. He was also a strong supporter of the monastic life and the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Rule of St. Benedict</a></span><span class="style1">. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">regory I the Great </span><span class="style1"> c.540-604Pope from 590-604 and one of the four Latin Doctors of the Church (with </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Ambrose</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Jerome</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Augustine</a></span><span class="style1">). Gregory was born into a Roman patrician family, the son of a senator. He entered public service and became civil governor of Rome before turning to the monastic life, using his personal wealth to found seven monasteries, one of them in his family castle. Appointed one of seven deacons of Rome, he was later sent to Constantinople as ambassador for Pope Pelagius II (r.579-590). In 586 he was once again in Rome as abbot of his old monastery, and, in 590, Gregory I was elected Pope. A skilled administrator, Gregory began many reforms including bringing order to the management of the church's land holdings in Italy, Sicily and Provence. A responsive pastor, he sought ways to assist the poor and needy. Gregory I worked out a truce with the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Lombards</a></span><span class="style1"> who were threatening to invade Rome in 592. In much of the political negotiation he acted independently, virtually as the ruler of central Italy, and set the tone for the strong medieval papacy.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">t. Benedict</span><span class="style1"> c.480-c.550Benedict of Nursia is considered to be </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">the founder of Western monasticism</a></span><span class="style1">, even though he founded no specific order. [After his death, Benedictine orders or communities based on his "Rule" spread throughout Europe.] After study in Rome, he withdrew (c.500) to a cave in Subiaco, Italy, disgusted with the immorality of contemporary society. He lived as a hermit for several years until a community gradually grew up around him. Benedict established twelve monasteries of twelve monks each. Around 525 he moved to Monte Cassino where he lived the rest of his life. Here he drew up (c.540) his "Rule" (known as the "Rule of St. Benedict") that provided principles and procedures for the monastic way of life and has become the classic text for Western monks. His sister, St. Scholastica, was a nun in a monastery near Monte Cassino. [In 1965, at the rededication of Monte Cassino (which had been destroyed by Allied bombing in 1944), Pope Paul VI proclaimed Benedict the patron saint of Europe.]</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">oethius wrote treatises on mathematics, logic, theology (in which he applied logic to Christian revelation) and music. His </span><span class="style6">De institutione musica</span><span class="style1"> is one of the most influential treatises in the history of music, explaining the theories of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Pythagoras</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Nicomachus</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristoxenus</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Ptolemy</a></span><span class="style1">. His translation and commentary on </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Porphyry</a></span><span class="style1">'s </span><span class="style6">Introduction to the Categories of Aristotle</span><span class="style1"> became the standard medieval textbook for logic. His most famous work,</span><span class="style6">Consolation of Philosophy,</span><span class="style1"> written during his imprisonment, was, next to the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1">, the most widely read and translated medieval work. Owing to his linking of logic with revelation, Boethius has been called "the last of the Roman philosophers, the first of the scholastic theologians." </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">roclus</span><span class="style1"> c.410-485This pagan </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Neoplatonic</a></span><span class="style1"> philosopher was the last significant synthesizer of early Greek philosophy. Proclus' work was influential in helping the spread of Neoplatonic thought throughout the Roman, Byzantine, and Islamic worlds. Proclus studied under </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Plutarch</a></span><span class="style1"> and Syrianus whom he succeeded as head of the Academy of Athens founded by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Plato</a></span><span class="style1"> c. 387 B.C. His writings had a significant influence on Christian theology through their impact on the work of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Pseudo-Dionysius</a></span><span class="style1">.</span><span class="style5">Boethius (Anicius Severimus)</span><span class="style1"> c.480-524 Roman theologian, scholar, statesman and philosopher whose study in Athens and mastery of Greek enabled him to translate into Latin the works of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1">, thus transmitting those texts and ideas to the Middle Ages at a critical juncture in Western history. The chief minister to the Ostrogoth king, Theodoric (r.493-526), Boethius was arrested and executed on charges of treasonable correspondence with the Byzantine court.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">seudo-Dionysius (or Dionysius the Pseudo-Areopagite)</span><span class="style1"> fl.c.500Mystical theologian (probably a Syrian monk) whose Greek treatises and letters united Christian dogma and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Neoplatonic</a></span><span class="style1"> philosophy. Pseudo-Dionysius was wrongly identified with Dionysius the Aeopagite, the Athenian converted by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Paul</a></span><span class="style1"> (Acts 17:34). His works, influenced by the Neoplatonic philosophy of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Proclus</a></span><span class="style1"> and translated into Latin by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">John Scotus Erigena</a></span><span class="style1">, exerted their own Neoplatonic influence on medieval Western and Eastern Christian thought and has had a great impact on aspects of their devotional and religious natures to the present. Pseudo-Dionysius focused on the intimate unions between God and the soul and the progressive deification of man, attained by a process of "unknowing," in which the soul disregards the perceptions of the senses as well as the reasoning of the intellect.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n his </span><span class="style6">On Grace and Free Will</span><span class="style1"> (415), St. Augustine attempted to deal with this perplexing paradox of free will and predestination. (If God knows everything then he knows the future. If he knows the future then the future must occur exactly the way God knows it. If the future must occur exactly the way God knows it there can be no freedom. If there is no freedom to choose there is no room for responsibility.) At his death these questions remained unresolved and Augustine's position was being questioned among his own friends, particularly in relation to his emphasis on predestination and grace. Though technically proficient, his philosophy was usually secondary to his religious pursuits. For Augustine, reason was useful in the clarification of those principles already accepted by faith, a conviction he summarized in his famous statement "Credo ut intellegem" (I believe so that I may understand). In the Christian tradition in the West, Augustine stands as one of the great writers and thinkers. Other important works are: </span><span class="style6">On True Religion</span><span class="style1"> (c.390) and </span><span class="style6">On Christian Doctrine</span><span class="style1"> (397-428).</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">s a pastor/preacher in Hippo, he turned to the Scriptures and became an avid student, particularly of the writings of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Apostle Paul</a></span><span class="style1">. His central theme was divine grace and love, often undiscerned by the human mind but always at work calling men and women to God.In his </span><span class="style6">City of God</span><span class="style1"> (412-427), inspired by the fall of Rome to the Visigoth king </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Alaric</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.395-410) in 410, Augustine developed a Christian philosophy of history. He viewed the world as temporal and the city of earth ("civitas terrena") as a repetitious pattern of success and failure. On the other hand, the city of God ("civitas dei") was not transitory and gave a citizenship that led to happiness, peace, perfection and salvation. Augustine, however, did not neglect to address responsibility for care of the earthly city and stressed that decency, order, compassion, discipline, trust and forbearance ought to be exhibited among the earthly citizens, with the Christian responsible for making it a better place. Augustine also wrote </span><span class="style6">On the Trinity</span><span class="style1"> (400-416) in which he developed his views on the Holy Spirit and human personality. In </span><span class="style6">On the Reward and Remission of Sins</span><span class="style1"> (411) and </span><span class="style6">On the Spirit and the Letter</span><span class="style1"> (412) he addressed questions raised by the Pelagian heresy of the importance of free will in determining one's own eternal destiny. Augustine argued that as God was all-knowing, all good and all powerful, He alone determined man's fate through His grace. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n 386 Augustine retired to a community with his son and friends and begin an ascetic life of worship and study and was baptized by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Ambrose</a></span><span class="style1"> himself (Bishop of Milan) on Easter Eve 386. Returning to Thagaste in 388, he set up an ascetic community for study and writing. In 391, while visiting Hippo, his plans were changed when the populace demanded his ordination. In 395 he succeeded Valerius as Bishop of Hippo, holding this office until his death in 430. The greatest of the Church Fathers and the first truly important philosopher in the Christian Platonic tradition, Augustine's career and writings can only be summarized briefly here. He was a dedicated exponent of orthodox Christianity, writing against the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Donatists</a></span><span class="style1"> (who rejected priestly and ecclesiastical authority), the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Pelagianists</a></span><span class="style1"> (who overemphasized free will in salvation to the detriment of God's grace) and the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Manichaeists</a></span><span class="style1"> (who minimized free will). He was an intellect of the highest order and set the foundation for Western Christianity in theology, philosophy and ethics. His </span><span class="style6">Confessions</span><span class="style1"> (c.400) remains a classic as an autobiography and as a work of history. (It includes his famous prayer, "Give me chastity and continence, but not just now!" [Confessions, VIII,7]). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ugustine was sent to Carthage for his education and studied grammar, the Latin classics and rhetoric before choosing teaching as his preferred career. His early adult life included fathering a child, Adeonatus, by a mistress with whom he lived for fourteen years. His philosophical and religious quest also began in Carthage. A concern with the problem of evil attracted him to the materialistic dualism of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Manicheaism</a></span><span class="style1"> though he did not remain in the movement very long. [Founded by Mani of Persia (c.215-276), Manicheanism held that reality was an eternal struggle between light (good, soul) and darkness (evil, body).] Augustine was also attracted to formal </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">scepticism</a></span><span class="style1"> through </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Cicero</a></span><span class="style1">'s writings. In 383 Augustine moved to Rome to become a teacher, then on to Milan to accept a very attractive offer as a professor of rhetoric in 384. In Milan his life and career were radically changed. The influence of his mother and friends, the preaching of Ambrose, his discovery of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Neoplatonism</a></span><span class="style1"> (with its conception of an immaterial reality), the idea of a life of renunciation, his struggles over his sexuality: all of these led him to his conversion experience. Upon hearing a child's jingle, "take up and read," he turned to the scriptures and read, "not in debauchery and licentiousness, not in quarreling and jealousy. But put on the Lord </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Jesus Christ</a></span><span class="style1">, and make no provision for the flesh, to gratify its desires." (Romans 13:13-14). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">erome returned to Rome in 382 where, under the sponsorship of Pope Damasus (r.366-384), he began work on the first translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Latin. He eventually completed the Old Testament in Palestine. An extreme ascetic, Jerome had a following that enabled him to found two monastic communities near Bethlehem where he produced his biblical commentaries (which were heavily dependent upon Origen, though in later life he turned against Origen's more speculative ideas and allegorism) and where he finished both Old and New Testaments. Jerome's version of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1">, known as the Vulgate, set a tradition of translating the Bible directly from the original languages that has been followed by the greatest Catholic and Protestant scholars to this day. (He is also responsible for the advise, "Never look a gift horse in the mouth." [</span><span class="style6">On the Epistle to the Ephesians</span><span class="style1"> ].)</span><span class="style5">St. Augustine of Hippo (Aurelius Augustinus or Augustine of Hippo)</span><span class="style1"> 354-430Bishop of Hippo (on the North African coast), a dominant Latin Church Father, one of the four Latin Doctors of the Church (with </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Ambrose</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Jerome</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Gregory the Great</a></span><span class="style1">) and perhaps the greatest thinker of Christian antiquity, Augustine was born in Thagaste, in North Africa (modern Tunesia), of middle class, Latin speaking parents. His father was a pagan and his mother, a strong influence in his life, a devout Christian. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">OST ROMAN PHILOSOPHERS AND THEOLOGIANS (400-600)(For a more comprehensive listing see "REL/PHIL" grid for each country)</span><span class="style5">St. Jerome (Eusebius Hieronymus)</span><span class="style1"> c.342-c.420 Monastic leader, biblical translator, one of the most learned of the Fathers of the Western Church and one of the four Latin Doctors of the Church (with </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Ambrose</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Augustine</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Gregory the Great</a></span><span class="style1">). Born into a wealthy family in Dalmatia (Yugoslavia), Jerome was educated in Rome and became fascinated with grammar, rhetoric and Latin literature. Jerome then went to Antioch to study Greek and, in 374, retired to an ascetic life, preferring the life of a scholar. While a hermit in the Syrian desert he taught himself Hebrew.Difficult, even irascible (often quarreling with his neighbors), Jerome did not make a good hermit. He was too much of a Westerner and returned to Antioch and Constantinople where he was introduced to exegetical study of the Scriptures and the works of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Origen</a></span><span class="style1">. He also translated and edited </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Eusebius</a></span><span class="style1">' </span><span class="style6">Chronicle,</span><span class="style1"> a history of the world from the birth of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Abraham</a></span><span class="style1"> to 325. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">see </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Philosophical/Theological Summary</a></span><span class="style1">)(see also </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Medieval Philosophy and Religion</a></span><span class="style1">)NEOPLATONISMA direct outgrowth of the Roman Neoplatonism of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Philo</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Albinus</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Plotinus</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Porphyry</a></span><span class="style1">, Neoplatonism was an attempt at harmonizing Christian, Jewish and Islamic theology (or even secular thought) with the mystical form of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Plato</a></span><span class="style1">'s philosophy passed on by Plotinus. Neoplatonism gained the admiration of the estimable </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Augustine</a></span><span class="style1"> of Hippo. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Pseudo-Dionysius</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">John Scotus Erigena</a></span><span class="style1"> were the other two most important Christian Neoplatonists, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">al-Farabi</a></span><span class="style1"> began Islamic Neoplatonism, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Solomon ibn Gabirol</a></span><span class="style1"> was the first great Jewish medieval Neoplatonist and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Proclus</a></span><span class="style1"> was the most prominent secular Neoplatonist.</span></text>
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<text>Post-Roman, Pre-Gregorian Middle Agesfl. 400-600Monophonic chant - one melody line sung a cappella (no instrumental accompaniment) by several monks standing around a large book of chants. Early Christian chant owes much, including identical melodic formulae, to Jewish chant from which it derived.</text>
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<text><span class="style5">. Apollinare, Ravenna </span><span class="style1"> A few miles outside of Ravenna, S. Apollinare is most noted for the great mosaic covering its apse. Symbols, which were easily read by the faithful, appear such as the the clouds around </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Moses</a></span><span class="style1"> and Elijah which symbolise that they are apparitions to St. Apollanaris, the central figure; the three lambs symbolize the Trinity. The piece represents the transfiguration of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Christ</a></span><span class="style1">. </span><span class="style5">Byzantine Mosaics</span><span class="style1">The medium of mosaic, used extensively by the Romans, yields the greatest evidence of early Christian art owing to its durability. The use of glass expanded the color possibilities. Gold was also used and was considered to symbolise infinite space. It also had the practical effect of catching and amplifying the light since the surface was never perfectly smooth and level. The small cubes of glass are called "tesserae" and, following a carefully organised plan of linear patterns, were pressed into wet plaster a section at a time. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">agia Sophia</span><span class="style1">Originally built by the Emperor </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Constantine</a></span><span class="style1">, the Hagia Sophia or Church of the Holy Wisdom was burned to the ground during a revolt in 532. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Justinian</a></span><span class="style1"> began to rebuild it and endeavored to interpret </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">the Basilica</a></span><span class="style1"> in an entirely new way. He employed two mathematicians and the results were unique. The central space measures one hundred feet by one hundred feet, with four rectangular columns rising 70 feet and supporting four great arches. The arches are connected by concave triangles or pendentives. The top edge of this structure provides the support for the main dome. On the east and west sides are two half circles capped by half domes, creating three apses. The overall effect is that the domes seem to be floating, in part because of the use of gold and coloured glass on the periphery of the dome. Buttresses or masses of solid stone were used on the outside to support the dome. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">The minarets</a></span><span class="style1"> or towers were added after the Moslem defeat of Constantinople in 1453. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">his all succeeds in producing a complex and sometimes baffling spatial perception, which is also made more complex by the use of mosaics. Because of the slight tilt of each "tessera" (i.e., the small piece of marble, glass or tile used in mosaic work), the limited light is bounced around the interior, increasing the sense of light and at the same time creating a sense of physical distance from the characters depicted in the mosaics. It is as if those scenes are taking place in another place; not of this world— sort of a Byzantine "Twilight Zone." Gold and bright colors are commonly used in the mosaics and the columns are a richly veined marble of warm hues. Old Testament themes are common. Rocks and foliage are rendered in a highly stylized manner, rather than being drawn from observation, and the drapery of the figures creates formalised, tubular forms rather than revealing and naturalistic anatomy lying underneath. The figures do not look at us, they gaze above and beyond us. Space is symbolic; the figures float in it. Two of the more interesting mosaics are those of the Emperor and Empress, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Justinian</a></span><span class="style1"> and Theodora, respectively. They are surrounded by their earthly goods, rendered symbolically, of course. Their servants, members of state office, and clergy are floating in the same timeless space.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">an Vitale, Ravenna </span><span class="style1"> Amidst the chaos, both political and economic, of the transitional years between the last of the Ostrogoths and the first decades of Byzantine rule in Ravenna, the city was to witness a revival of church architectural monuments. Unlike the earlier Roman structures, these were to be made of local brick rather than concrete. Like the early Roman structures, though, they were decorated with columns and coloured marble. San Vitale at Ravenna was built about 525 to 545 and has a somewhat complex plan. It is octagonal and has a rather spare exterior, consisting of brick facades with simple buttressing and arched windows. Inside, the main space consists of an ambulatory or walkway on the ground floor and a gallery on the second. The interior consists of concave arches; seven, with the eighth containing the altar. The capitals of the columns in the interior have no reference to the capitals used on ancient columns. They are shaped like baskets which allow for a transformation from the round column at the base to the square arch base at the top. The decoration of these capitals is a meandering scroll carved into the stone. The device known as the squinch or tiny arch is used to round off the corners of the windows in the top or crown of the building. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">arly Christian Art and Byzantine Art can be viewed as the end of ancient art. But the real difference is really in a basic conceptual change regarding space and the human figure. Another real difference is that the ancients honored their past achievements; the early Christians had little feeling or time for restoration or conservation of historic landmarks. </span><span class="style5">Fresco </span><span class="style1">There are two main types, Fresco Secco and Fresco Buono. The former consists of applying paint to a plaster surface. Not bad in the short run, but a disaster for longevity since a lot of organisms love to live on the surface and calcine deposits form on the surface, obscuring anything underneath. The latter is more difficult because the paint must be applied to wet plaster. Small areas are worked resulting in seams, but the colour is brilliant and it lasts a long time. Good value. A cartoon, or actual size drawing, is prepared of the whole design so that no time is wasted as each section of plaster is laid. The cartoon is transferred to the section of wet plaster and the painter begins -- and hopefully finishes before the plaster dries. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">o period is without its great achievements. Some of the more notable in this developmental phase were the dome on the pendentive, interlacing arches, ribbed vaults and external buttressing. The man to be thanked for helping to bring us the "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Dark Ages</a></span><span class="style1">" is the Emperor </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Constantine</a></span><span class="style1">. He moved his capital from Italy to the shores of the Bosporus: </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Byzantium</a></span><span class="style1">. He called it Constantinople. His successors liked the split and so they kept it. The Eastern or Byzantine Empire lasted about a thousand years; the Western or Roman Empire was a bit less fortunate, being the target of repeated raids by Germanic tribes, some of the best sackers and pillagers around. They even made it to Rome a couple of times. The end result was that the last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustus, was replaced by Odoacer, a Gothic King, also famous for his role in crossword puzzles. Thus all of the separate small states of the Western Empire would be ruled but not united by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Germanic tribes</a></span><span class="style1">. </span></text>
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<text>The smaller states were to discover "competition" which would lead to a greater variety of artistic styles and interpretations. This sense of competition with other states, added to the fact that great masses of people needed to be assembled in one place, opened the door for some creative engineering. Instead of the outer design of the building dictating the proportions and design of the innards, the opposite gradually became the case. Since most people were illiterate, imagery and narrative became important means for the propagation of the faith. Imagination and invention were far more important than an interest in visual accuracy, and of course censorship became a great pastime. No nudes allowed. No new thoughts about how to present old ideas. Tradition became a substitute for consciousness. On the bright side, we see the uses of shape and pattern changing from purely decorative elements in ancient art to being the means of expressive content in medieval art. In Celtic and Islamic Art, for instance, abstraction dominates to the point of the exclusion of observed reality.</text>
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<text><span class="style1">EDIEVAL ART — GENERAL COMMENTSGradually, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">the Roman Empire dissolved</a></span><span class="style1"> into a variety of disconnected states which carried on the last vestiges of imperialism and which also transformed the culture. Their disconnectedness laid the way for a later political development: the nation. Another operative was to prove to be a significant factor in the shift of civilization from the ancient world to the Middle Ages: the dominance of religion as a means of uniting and controlling the masses. The first of these religions was </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Christianity</a></span><span class="style1">, the second </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Islam</a></span><span class="style1">. Each demanded the ultimate loyalty from its followers. Many of the faithful died as a result of their beliefs in religious purges and "Holy Wars." It is interesting to note that both religions based this fervor on revelation rather than reason which on the one hand gave the powers-that-be the power equivalent to their ancient predecessors who were considered to be gods. The new folks simply had God on their side. However, the real incentive being offered was an afterlife, defined in detail, with certain guarantees depending on the manner of death and a measure of one's service. Cash was also important and could often substitute for servility. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he term "Middle Ages" was coined by Renaissance (14th and 15th centuries) historians for the period between the end of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the Renaissance. (</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Constantine</a></span><span class="style1"> [r.307-337] was the last great Roman emperor.)The Middle Ages are NOT as some mistakenly called them the "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Dark Ages</a></span><span class="style1">" (a term coined by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Petrarch</a></span><span class="style1"> [1304-1374]). Only the years between c.400-800 might justifiably called the "Dark Ages" because of the barbarian invasions. But even then, Celtic (Irish, Scottish, English and Welsh) culture was a great ray of civilized light in the barbarian darkness and from 800 and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Charlemagne</a></span><span class="style1">'s Holy Roman Empire on it would be absurd to use the term "Dark Ages."</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">ondino dei Liucci</span><span class="style1"> (Raimondino dei Liuzzi) (c.1270-c.1326)Italian physician/anatomist, the "Restorer of Anatomy." He conducted the first public dissections of cadavers since </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Herophilus</a></span><span class="style1">, c.300 B.C. Nonetheless, he perpetuated </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Galen</a></span><span class="style1"> 's inaccuracies. His </span><span class="style6">Anatomia</span><span class="style1"> of 1316 was the standard anatomical text until </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Vesalius</a></span><span class="style1"> ' </span><span class="style6">Fabrica,</span><span class="style1"> 1543. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">illiam of Ockham</span><span class="style1"> (c.1285-c.1349)</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">British scholar</a></span><span class="style1">, famous for "Ockham's Razor" -- In framing hypotheses "entities must not be needlessly multiplied." The simplest hypothesis must be considered first. </span><span class="style5">Jean Buridan</span><span class="style1"> (c.1300-c.1358)French scholastic philosopher -- The Theory of Impetus. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1"> said that terrestrial objects were kept in motion by the action of the air upon them, celestial ones by being attached to a moving crystalline sphere. The Theory of Impetus said that only the initial "impetus" was required to keep an object in motion; the initial impetus for celestial objects was God. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Galileo</a></span><span class="style1"> developed the modern concept of inertia from Buridan's ideas.</span><span class="style5">Nicolas Oresme</span><span class="style1"> (c.1320-1382)French Bishop and scholar. Oresme wrote books on astronomy, economics and mathematics. He developed a mathematical description of motion and, in addition, graphs for plotting dependent versus independent variables.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">eonardo Fibonacci</span><span class="style1"> (c.1170-c.1250)Italian mathematician. Fibonacci introduced the "0" notation to Europe. The symbol "0" had first been used in Cambodia c.680 B.C. and by Arabic mathematicians for centuries. Discovered </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">the Fibonacci Series</a></span><span class="style1"> for enumerating reproducing rabbits. Both concepts are presented in the </span><span class="style6">Liber Abaci,</span><span class="style1"> 1202.</span><span class="style5">Marco Polo</span><span class="style1"> (1254-1324)Italian merchant and traveler, Chinese official and confidant of Kublai Khan. His </span><span class="style6">Travels</span><span class="style1"> (1298) is a finely detailed record of his trek from Venice to China, India and Indo-China. An instant best seller, it fired the imagination of Europe about the East. </span><span class="style5">Maimonides </span><span class="style1">(Moses ben Maimon) (1135-1204)</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Jewish philosopher</a></span><span class="style1"> and physician. Maimonides </span><span class="style6">Guide for the Perplexed</span><span class="style1"> effects a concordance between the universal philosophy and science of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1"> and the Old Testament. Influenced </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Thomas Aquinas</a></span><span class="style1">. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">lbertus Magnus </span><span class="style1"> (c.1200-1280)</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">German theologian</a></span><span class="style1">, alchemist and biologist. Albert the Great was the first biologist of note and the first botanist at all since </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Theophrastus</a></span><span class="style1">. With </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Grosseteste</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Roger Bacon</a></span><span class="style1"> he emphasized the necessity of experimentation in science; but he also believed in the power of magic. </span><span class="style6">De Vegetabilibus et Plantis</span><span class="style1"> (1250) considers the transformation of species. In </span><span class="style6">De Animalibus</span><span class="style1"> he discusses embryology and reproduction, repeating and confirming Aristotle's embryological experiments. He was the mentor of St. Thomas Aquinas. </span><span class="style5">St. Thomas Aquinas</span><span class="style1"> (1225-1274)</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Italian theologian and philosopher</a></span><span class="style1">, pupil of Albertus Magnus. Regarded by the Catholic Church as its predominant theologian and philosopher. He accepted both the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> and Aristotle as being correct in their presentation and explanation of the universe. His Summa Theologica and Summa contra gentiles present a grand synthesis of the Bible and Aristotle. The Bible is always superior, but one seeks logical method and scientific truth in Aristotle (see </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Maimonides</a></span><span class="style1">).</span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">oger Bacon </span><span class="style1"> (c.1214-1292)</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">English scholastic philosopher</a></span><span class="style1"> and scientist -- "Doctor Mirabilis," (Wonderful Teacher). Bacon was a disciple of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Grosseteste</a></span><span class="style1">, particularly in his powerful and quarrelsome advocacy of experimentation as the method of science. He believed that science was complementary to, not opposed to religion; in this he was absolutely Aristotelian. He did experimental work in optics, lenses (perhaps inventing spectacles), mirrors and the rainbow. He described, but never carried out studies on balloons, flying machines with bird-like flapping wings and mechanically driven carriages and ships. He gave a prescription for the manufacture of gunpowder. His justly famous </span><span class="style6">Four Causes of Ignorance</span><span class="style1"> are (see </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Francis Bacon</a></span><span class="style1">): unsuitable authority, custom, the unlearned mob, and the concealment of ignorance by a show of apparent wisdom. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style5">lcuin of York</span><span class="style1"> (c.737-804)</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Anglo-Latin scholar</a></span><span class="style1">. Alcuin became the headmaster of the cathedral school at York. About 787 Alcuin was invited by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Charlemagne</a></span><span class="style1"> to gather and organize Europe's leading scholars in his court at Aachen. He subsequently founded cathedral schools throughout Charlemagne's (the Carolingian) empire. After Charlemagne himself, Alcuin is the leading figure in the Carolingian Renaissance. It was Alcuin who taught Charlemagne to read.</span><span class="style5">Omar Khayyam</span><span class="style1"> (c.1048-c.1122)Persian mathematician and poet. His moving finger wrote the first solution to the cubic equation (x3), reformed the Moslem calendar and initiated the unification of geometry and algebra, which was consummated by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Descartes</a></span><span class="style1">. Author of </span><span class="style6">The Rubaiyat.</span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style5">Robert Grosseteste</span><span class="style1"> (c.1175-1253)</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">British prelate and scholar</a></span><span class="style1">. Bishop of Lincoln. Grosseteste championed an uncommon insistence on experience and experiments in science and conducted original investigations in optics. He was the revered mentor of Roger Bacon. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">OME PROMINENT SCIENTISTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES(For a more comprehensive listing see "SCIENCE" grid for each country)</span><span class="style5">Boethius (Anicius Severimus)</span><span class="style1"> (c.480-524)</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Roman scholar</a></span><span class="style1">, "the last of the Romans, the first of the Scholastics." Boethius wrote treatises on astronomy, mathematics, music and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1">, serving to transmit classical learning to the Middle Ages. Accused of treason and of practicing magic, he was jailed and executed by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Emperor Theodoric</a></span><span class="style1">. While in jail he composed his wonderful </span><span class="style6">De Consolatione Philosophiae. </span><span class="style1"></span><span class="style5">The Venerable Bede (St. Bede the Venerable)</span><span class="style1"> (c.673-735)Anglo-Saxon scholar and churchman. Bede's most famous work is the </span><span class="style6">Historia Ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum</span><span class="style1"> (</span><span class="style6">The Ecclesiastical History of the English People</span><span class="style1"> ). In scientific matters his studies on calendric computation and on the tides were the standard texts for many centuries.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">EDIEVAL ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHYThe Islamic philosophers were inspired by the contacts between the religion of Islam and Greek philosophy. The meeting was felicitous or, as R.H. Walzer has said, a "productive assimilation." (R.H. Walzer, </span><span class="style6">Greek Into Arabic,</span><span class="style1"> Oxford, 1962, p.11). The first success was in translating. The works of the Greek philosophers were preserved in centers of learning which the Moslems found in their conquests. Most of this translation activity was at its height in the ninth century when academies were established that included translators as staff members. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Aristotle</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Plato</a></span><span class="style1"> and other Greek philosophers were thus transmitted to the rest of the world through these efforts and Greek learning became available to both the Christian and Jewish communities of scholars. Moslem philosophers also discussed issues among themselves, chiefly those concerned with determinism and human freedom, subjects of great interest in the West as well. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">al-Farabi</a></span><span class="style1"> could be described as a Neoplatonist, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Avicenna</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Averroes</a></span><span class="style1"> as Neoaristotelians and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">al-Ghazali</a></span><span class="style1"> as a pantheistic Sceptic who argued that Aristotle's views were inconsistent with Islamic doctrine and teaching. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he first long caliphate was based in Damascus and lasted for ninety years (660-750). Jerusalem and the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Dome of the Rock</a></span><span class="style1"> (the shrine surrounding the rock on which Abraham is said to have prepared to sacrifice his son, Isaac) became the third major Moslem holy place after Mecca and Medina. During this period Christians paid a poll tax but were generally better off than they had been before. (The Christian crusades [see essays </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">The Early Crusades</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">The Later Crusades</a></span><span class="style1">] were Christian holy wars which attempted to free the holy places in Jerusalem from Moslem control.) Shiites continued in active opposition to Sunnis and were centered in Persia where they were strongest. The last of the Damascus caliphs was murdered along with ninety family members and the caliphate moved east to Baghdad where it shifted from Arab to Persian control. Separate Moslem states appeared in Spain at Cordova and in Morocco, Tunis and in Egypt. The Shiite dynasty built Cairo in the tenth century and rival factions appeared in Persia as well. Eventually the Turks gained power when the Seljuk Turks captured Baghdad in 1055 and remained in power until 1258 when Mongols attacked Baghdad. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">yria and Persia were conquered first, followed by Palestine, Egypt, the islands of Cyprus and Rhodes, southern Italy and Sicily. In the East, Moslems conquered parts of Russia (Turkestan), and by 724 had reached India and the western borders of China. From Egypt they moved south into central Africa. North Africa, Carthage, Spain and Gibraltar also fell to Moslem armies. They even drove to France where </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Charles Martel</a></span><span class="style1"> met the Moslems in battle at Tours in 732 and defeated them. Of all these lands gained by conquest, only the Mediterranean islands and Spain were recaptured by Christian forces. The Islamic empire was troubled by internal conflict. The first crisis was over the succession of leadership after Mohammed's death. The first successors were from outside the family, and were called caliphs. Mohammed's family asserted power by seating Akli, son-in-law of Mohammed and rejecting all writings but the Koran itself, a kind of Moslem fundamentalism that became the basis for the Shiite sect. An opposing sect emerged, more tolerant of writings, commentaries and traditions other than the Koran and favoring the election of the caliphs. This group became the Sunni sect, soon the larger of the two branches of Islam. (The Shiites and Sunnis remain rivals to this day.)</span></text>
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<text>Mohammed's first audience was his own family, then the people of Mecca who initially rejected him. In 622 he moved to Yathrib after he was invited to come and settle disputes. This event, known as the Hegira, is considered the official beginning of the Moslem (or Muslim) religion and 622 is dated year 1 in the Moslem calendar. The name of the town was changed to Medina, "the city of the prophet." Mohammed announced a jihad or holy war against those who refused to convert and any Moslems who died in such a war became martyrs for the holy cause, receiving special rewards in paradise. In 628 Mohammed returned to Mecca as conqueror, cleansed the Kaaba or Great Mosque of all idols and established the black stone therein as the focal point of Islam. (Moslems believe the black granite stone to be the "navel" of the earth, constructed by Abraham upon divine command.) By 630 he and his followers had control of all Arabia. Mohammed died c.632. Within 100 years after his death, Moslem forces were battling in Europe against the Byzantine Empire and had travelled as far east as India. The expansion was rapid and threatened both East and West. The Moslem population explosion helped greatly in the spread of Islam. Arabs had been moving to Iraq, Palestine and Persia for sometime before Mohammed but now their growth had a stronger purpose. Conquest and the taking of booty were the norm, though Christians and Jews were generally treated tolerantly as fellow "people of the Book." </text>
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<text>As the Koran is difficult to read, and full of allusions to things and persons not always clearly identified, a large body of explanatory commentary developed. Mohammed believed that he had received the final revelation from God of a religion for all mankind, a religion that would fulfill both Christianity and Judaism. A firm monotheist, he rejected the concept of the Trinity as well as belief in Arab pagan gods.Religious observance for the Moslem consists of prayer five times daily (facing Mecca, as a witness to the one God and Mohammed as his prophet), observance of Ramadan (a month- long period of fasting from sunrise to sunset), giving alms to the poor, and if possible, a pilgrimage to Mecca (called a "hadj") during one's lifetime. Food, drink and dress are strictly regulated in some Moslem sects, less strictly in others. Polygamy is sanctioned up to four wives, divorce is relatively simple and the role of women varies again by sect. </text>
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<text><span class="style1">ohammed was born c.570 in Mecca (now in Saudi Arabia) into a poor family of the Quaraysh tribe, a people who lived in caravans trading with Syria. Orphaned at age six, he was raised by his relatives and, as a young man, entered the service of a wealthy widow whom he later married after having carried out several successful trade missions for her. By conversations with Jews and Christians and through fasting and vigils, Mohammed became convinced that God had singled him out to be His messenger. Around 610 he heard a message from the angel Gabriel telling him to become a prophet of the one and only true God, Allah (= the Jewish YHWH or Yahweh), and found Islam (with Judaism and Christianity the third great monotheistic religion). Throughout the remainder of his life he wrote down his revelations, often in times of crisis. Written in Arabic, they combined revelation with Old Testament stories, legends surrounding </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Alexander the Great</a></span><span class="style1"> and Arab folklore. These writings, the Koran (or Qur'an), were put together sometime after his death. (see </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">The Rise of Islam</a></span><span class="style1">)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">EDIEVAL JEWISH PHILOSOPHY Since </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Philo</a></span><span class="style1"> in the first century A.D., Jewish philosophers showed an interest in a synthesis of Jewish biblical thought with Greek philosophy. All of the important medieval Jewish philosophers combined philosophy with traditional Jewish theology based on their enormous regard for the Hebrew Scriptures and the rabbinic writings in the Talmud. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Saadia ben Joseph</a></span><span class="style1">, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Levi ben Gershom</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Crescas</a></span><span class="style1"> were eclectic in their philosophical views, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Solomon ibn Gabirol</a></span><span class="style1"> was a </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Neoplatonist</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Maimonides</a></span><span class="style1"> a </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Neoaristotelian</a></span><span class="style1">.MEDIEVAL ISLAM The followers of Islam (Arabic for submission) are called Moslems, "those who submit." Islam is found today in north and central Africa,Yugoslavia, Albania, Egypt, Turkey, Russia, the entire Near East, Pakistan, parts of India, the Malay Peninsula, Indonesia, the Philippines, Central Asia and parts of China as well as the United States, England and Canada. Founded by Mohammed (or Muhammed) in the early seventh century, Islam was one of three major religions to develop west of India. </span></text>
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<text>This literature remained basically conservative as Old Church Slavonic, the language of the church, did not lend itself to new ideas and secular learning was virtually non-existent in Russia. In art, the painting of icons flourished, with various local schools establishing their own individual characteristics. Some of the icons of this period remain among the most beautiful of the genre. When Russia finally opened up to the West, Western religious scholars pointed out significant "errors" that had been maintained by the Russian church for centuries. Highly loyal to the rituals and rites of their own faith, Orthodox resistance to unwarranted interference grew. While the Orthodox church was opposed to change in general, changes suggested by outsiders, particularly from the West, were found most unwelcome. Old ways die hard and the Russian church and state remained a medieval society well into the last quarter of the nineteenth century.</text>
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<text>When Constantinople finally fell to the Turks in 1453, Moscow claimed to be the religious and political successor to Constantinople. In support of this claim, the Russian tsars were invested down to 1894 with a cap and jacket said to have come from Byzantium. All of this was part of Russian "myth" and was supported by the church for its own purposes. The Russian Orthodox Church was always in full partnership with the Russian autocracy. Monasteries became immensely rich and by 1500 owned one-third of all lands available for cultivation in Russia. Tsars controlled the elections of metropolitan patriarchs and in two instances patriarchs actually shared power with reigning tsars, in what has been called a dyarchy. This experiment was not repeated after the Patriarch of Moscow, Nikon (1605-1681), proved both arrogant and ambitious. He was deposed in 1666. Literature and art were the almost exclusive domains of the church in Russia. Travel literature concerned pilgrimages to the Holy Land; household etiquette was determined by the church; theological tracts supporting Orthodox teachings and practices attacked the Catholics in the West; Protestantism was opposed when it appeared in the western regions of Russia. </text>
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<text>In 1453 Constantinople fell to the Moslem Turks who permitted the Christian community to continue to worship without disturbance. The patriarch of Constantinople continued to be a Greek and Orthodox traditions and practices were thus maintained in Constantinople and throughout the Balkan region.Russia emerged as a successor state to at least part of the Byzantine Empire. Northeastern and eastern Russia were dominated by the Moslem Tartars and western Russia was dominated by Catholic Lithuanian and Polish influences. In the fifteenth century, the Moscow princes, backed by the Orthodox church, emerged as the leading powers in Russia. When weak princes could not function well the patriarch of Moscow stepped in to govern, thus further strengthening the ties between church and state. When Ivan III, the Grand Duke of Moscow (r.1462-1505), became the ruler of all Russia he became the champion of the Russian Orthodox Church against the Catholic Poles and the Moslem Tartars. </text>
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<text><span class="style1">he Russian church immediately assumed an important place in Russian life and the clergy was created as a new social class. Church properties and monasteries multiplied and these institutions began to play an active role in Russian social and religious life. The first Russian literature was theological, using the Cyrillic alphabet, and Russian art forms began to appear. The Russian Orthodox Church, as it became known, assumed an independent and important role throughout Russia and in the whole of the Eastern Orthodox tradition. It has retained its identity even through the modern Communist era. THE BYZANTINE WORLDAfter </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">1054</a></span><span class="style1">, all official Byzantine ties with the Western church were broken, though some diplomatic relations were maintained. In the latter part of the eleventh century, Byzantium came under new pressures, first from the Seljuk Turks and later from Rome. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">The Fourth Crusade</a></span><span class="style1"> led to the destruction of Constantinople in 1204 and Byzantine culture moved to Moscow, the "third Rome." Though restored in 1261, Constantinople and its Byzantine Empire would never regain its prominence. Pressured by Venetians and Genoese who retained special privileges, and by Serbians from the Balkans, the Byzantine Empire became just another of the Balkan States from the twelfth century until final Turkish conquest in the fifteenth century. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">YZANTINE MISSIONARY OUTREACHThe Byzantine Church carried out successful missionary work among the Slavs and the Russians. The first of the Slavs to embrace Byzantine Christianity were the Bulgarians. Two Greek brothers, Cyril and Methodius, known as "Apostles to the Slavs," brought Christianity and the Cyrillic alphabet with them. The new alphabet became the basis for Russian, Bulgarian and Serbian. Cyril and Methodius prepared a Slavic translation of the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Bible</a></span><span class="style1"> and liturgy.Russia became officially Christian in the tenth century. The Grand Duke of Kiev, Vladimir (r.977-1015), was said to have asked all the faiths to represent themselves to him and make a presentation. Having heard from Moslems, Jews and Roman Catholics, he then sent envoys to each country where the faiths were practiced. The reports were most favorable from Greece, where the envoys reported feeling the sense of God's presence and the beauty of the worship. Vladimir was then baptized, married a Byzantine princess, destroyed the idols in Kiev and forcibly had the entire populace baptized in one day. This story is partly legendary, but nonetheless represents the beginnings of Christianity in Russia. (See </span><span class="style6">Russian Primary Chronicles,</span><span class="style1"> pp.168-169; 199). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">any of these monastic houses became wealthy both in lands and as places for housing valuable religious objects and writings. Frequently immune from taxation and also frequently objects of attempted control by emperors (almost always without success), the monasteries and monks became very powerful. The source of their power was in part their control over the general population. One major difference between East and West had to do with the clergy. Though monks, having taken monastic vows, were not allowed to marry, Byzantine priests were allowed to take wives. The monastic rule of the Byzantine Church was </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">St. Basil</a></span><span class="style1">'s Longer Rules and Shorter Rules which are in force in Eastern monastic communities to this day. </span></text>
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<text>RITUAL Centered in the sacraments of the church, ritual was the way of salvation for the layman in Byzantine Christianity. This was a tradition in which every religious act had a sacramental quality. Every image and relic preserved the essence of a particular saint; as the saint was present in the image of icon, so God was felt to be present in the sanctuary and could be reached only by properly following the ritual. The approach to worship was personal, almost magical in nature. The sermon was de-emphasized in this tradition and the focus was on mystery rather than the ethical questions within Christian faith and practice. MONASTICISM According to Byzantine thought, a true Christian ought to become a monk as this was the most direct route to salvation. The true Christian's place was thus in the monastery and many, including emperors, became monks on their deathbeds to insure or increase their hope of salvation. Both religious and political prestige and influence were available to members of the clergy. The rich and powerful founded new monasteries as acts of devotion or piety. </text>
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<text><span class="style1">hurch and state were inextricably bound together. The emperor regularly appointed, deposed and disciplined patriarchs and priests. Even civil law reflected ecclesiastical influence. The emperor played the part of both head of the department of the church, itself a department of the state, and of pope, a practice known as "Caesaropapism." Only occasionally did the patriarch of Constantinople dare challenge the prerogatives of the emperor in church matters. Theological matters and old controversies dominated church politics. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Arianism</a></span><span class="style1"> and the nature of Christ continued to be fiercely debated. "The empire was crossed and re-crossed by herds of mounted bishops galloping off to church councils." (Brinton, Christopher and Wolff,</span><span class="style6">A History of Civilization,</span><span class="style1"> I, p.229). Political jealousies between Constantinople, Antioch and Alexandria in Egypt partly fueled the controversies of the fourth to the seventh centuries, occupying the best minds and generating a significant body of theological literature. After the seventh century this intellectual ferment seems to have died down and the church settled into the forms with which it has been identified since. The last struggle, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">the Iconoclastic Controversy</a></span><span class="style1">, involved both East and West in the eighth and ninth centuries.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">here were constant struggles for control of the Byzantine Empire involving rivalries between emperors and empresses, political factions, the city of Constantinople itself (which seems to have had local autonomy) and the church. The Byzantine or Eastern emperor was no longer seen as a god, but as God's appointed ruler, his power divinely given. Surrounded by rigid rituals and practices, the emperor's power and authority were absolute yet constantly threatened. "Thus one encounters long-lasting dynasties on the Byzantine throne. Yet politicians and various social groups often intervened. They murdered emperors, blinded them (which made them ineligible to return to the throne), imprisoned them or exiled them, and put their own candidates on the throne." (Brinton, Christopher and Wolff, </span><span class="style6">A History of Civilization,</span><span class="style1"> I, p.223). Religion was the central fact of Byzantine life and culture. Marriage, leisure, intellectual life, esthetics, art, economic life, business, politics and foreign policy were all directly influenced by the church. Even war, whether against pagans, heretics or schismatics, was waged under the icon of the Virgin, which was carried before the emperor into battle and said to guarantee victory. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">YZANTIUM</a></span><span class="style1">: CHRISTIANITY IN THE EASTCentered in Constantinople, the Byzantine empire became the major hub for Eastern Christianity in its long process of separation from the Western church. Known in the East as Byzantium, the Slavs, Russians and the people of Asia Minor have always seen Constantinople as the religious center of their world. It was here that the traditions and practices of the Eastern Orthodox churches were formulated and preserved. This was accomplished over much turmoil and controversy with the Western church. The result was a church with a different liturgical tradition, theology, monastic system and approach to priestly functions and requirements. Though the Byzantine world has not been well treated by historians until fairly recently (Lecky, writing in the nineteenth century, called it "the most thoroughly base and despicable form that civilization has yet assumed." -- W.E.H. Lecky, </span><span class="style6">History of European Morals from Augustine to </span><span class="style9"><a href="#" class="group">Charlemagne</a></span><span class="style6">,</span><span class="style1"> New York, 1889, II, pp.13-14), we now know that the contributions of Byzantium in art, literature and learning were very great. </span></text>
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<text>THE CRUSADES (See Essays: The Early Crusades, The Later Crusades)HOLY ORDERS In the Middle Ages, most persons attending or teaching at universities and those who served in public life were members of religious orders, many of them "minor orders." The modern term "clerk" comes from the word "cleric," meaning a person in orders of some sort who could read and write and thus keep records. They served the thousands of parish churches and served as teachers and professors. With monks and priests they helped copy and thus preserve Latin literature and the classics as well as the writings of the medieval theologians, philosophers and scholars and vernacular poems and stories. When Greek and Arabic translations appeared in Europe in the twelfth century, it was these Western churchmen who read them first. </text>
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<text><span class="style1">wo missionary efforts supported by the Frankish kings should be noted. St. Willibrord (c.658-739) and twelve companions began missionary work among the Frisians of Holland. Ordained a bishop in 695, Willibrord established the see of Utrecht. His efforts were continued by Wynfrith (680-754) who would later be called (St.) Boniface. An English monk, he came to work in Willibrord's mission. He returned to England, then went to Rome where, in 718, he was commissioned a missionary to Germany by Pope Gregory II. In 722 he became Bishop of Germany. Established at Mainz, he appointed bishops in Bavaria, Thuringia and Hesse under his jurisdiction. Wynfrith also established one of the great missionary monasteries at Fulda. This monastic house was endowed by Carloman, son of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Charles Martel</a></span><span class="style1"> (Charles the Hammer, r.687-714). It became the center for learning and priestly education for all of central Germany. He also introduced the Benedictine Rule for monks. In 747 Wynfrith resigned his position and returned to Frisia as a missionary. His influence was vast. He established the practice of calling synods to make ecclesiastical decisions, attacked the worldliness of the clergy, upheld priestly celibacy, rebuked wandering bishops and enforced stricter discipline in his jurisdiction. Wynfrith, who had strengthened the relationship between the Frankish kings and the Roman church, died in 754, a martyr at the hands of pagans. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ELIGIOUS ISSUES IN THE MIDDLE AGES The political influence of Rome having diminished by the fifth century (See essay End of the Roman Empire), the Frankish Kingdom came into being by the middle of the sixth century. A dynasty, or succession of Frankish rulers emerged with whom the church in Rome had to establish relationships. This was made easier by the fact that Clovis, the first of these rulers, had converted to Christianity. Generally, the Frankish kings tended to support the church and gave generously to its causes. They also supported monasteries and monastic life, as well as expansion of Christianity through active support of missionary work into new areas such as Holland and parts of England. If the Frankish Merovingian kings were generous in giving land to the church and monasteries, they were not above confiscating such land to support their continual struggles for control and expansion of territories. These kings also appointed bishops and other ecclesiastical officials, setting aside the custom of election of such officials by the people and the clergy. Thus was born the roots of a later major conflict in the West, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">the Investiture Controversy</a></span><span class="style1">, a major issue with the rise of the nation states after c. 1000. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">EDIEVAL CHRISTIANITYChristianity had not yet conquered the Greco-Roman world when the Roman Empire ended. Missionaries had ventured as far as the British Isles, Northern France and the borders of Germany. St. Patrick was at work in Ireland, St. David in Wales, St. Columba in Scotland and St. Aidan in England. (See essays, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Celtic Beginnings</a></span><span class="style1"> and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Celtic Contributions</a></span><span class="style1">) Theodore, a native of Tarsus in Asia Minor, appointed as Archbishop of Canterbury in 668, unified all the factions present in British Christianity, creating a British church loyal to the pope in Rome at the Synod of Hertford (673 A.D.).Missionaries had also gone among the Franks, and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Clovis</a></span><span class="style1"> (r.481-511), the first leader of the Franks, espoused Christianity. He and c. 3000 of his followers were baptized in 496. His loyalty was to the Roman or Western church. Between 517 and 590 most of the Germanic peoples had adopted Western Christianity. The old struggle over </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Arianism</a></span><span class="style1"> simply died out, but the division between Rome and Constantinople continued to widen.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">s for the role of the pope, their claims of spiritual and temporal powers were at the highest. In 1198 Pope </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Innocent III</a></span><span class="style1"> stated, The Creator of the universe set up two great luminaries in the firmament of heaven; the greater light to rule the day, the lesser light to rule the night. In the same way for the firmament of the universal Church, which is spoken of as heaven, he appointed two great dignities; the greater to bear rule over souls (these being as it were, days), the lesser to bear rule over bodies (these being as it were, nights). These dignities are the pontifical authority and the royal power. Furthermore, the moon derives her light from the sun, and is in truth inferior to the sun in both size and quality, in position as well as effect. In the same way royal power derives its dignity from the pontifical authority: and the more closely it cleaves to the sphere of that authority the less is the light with which it is adorned; the further it is removed, the more it increases its splendor. (Henry Bettenson, </span><span class="style6">Documents of the Christian Church,</span><span class="style1"> New York, 1947, pp.157-158; also quoted in Brinton, Christopher and Wolff, </span><span class="style6">A History of Civilization,</span><span class="style1"> Englewood Cliffs,N.J.,1960, I, pp.305,306.) </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">n describing medieval life, Sydney E. Ahlstrom uses a quotation from Johan Huizinga's classic </span><span class="style6">The Waning of the Middle Ages.</span><span class="style1"> To the world when it was half a thousand years younger, the outlines of all things seemed more clearly marked than to us. The contrast between suffering and joy, between adversity and happiness, appeared more striking. Calamities and indigence were more afflicting than at present; it was more difficult to guard against them, and to find solace. Honours and riches were relished with greater avidity and contrasted more vividly with surrounding misery. We, at the present day, can hardly understand the keenness with which a fur coat, a good fire on the hearth, a soft bed, a glass of wine, were formerly enjoyed. (Quoted in "Western Catholicism," Sydney E. Ahlstrom, </span><span class="style6">A Religious History of the American People, </span><span class="style1"> Yale University Press, 1972, p.21. This chapter is an excellent brief review of the church in the Middle Ages). </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">EDIEVAL RELIGIONThere were four major factors that contributed to the transitional growth of later medieval society. The first factor was the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">rise of the city and the development of new classes</a></span><span class="style1"> of people not bound to the soil: the merchant and </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">artisan</a></span><span class="style1"> classes. The second was the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">increase in trade</a></span><span class="style1"> along with a growing awareness of and contact with the larger world, particularly the Far East. The third was the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">rise of the nation-state</a></span><span class="style1">; dynasties were established, territorial boundaries drawn, languages began to be particularized and foreign diplomacy developed. The fourth factor was the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">rise of the universities</a></span><span class="style1"> and the subsequent emphasis on education throughout Europe. Despite this growing secularization of society, it is difficult for the modern observer to appreciate the dominant role of religion and the church in medieval life. Saints' days, holy days, major religious observances and religious symbols were a part of daily life. Pilgrimages to religious sites were common and the church bells regulated life from dawn to dark. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">For More on Medieval Religion & Philosophy See the Following Essays)</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Post Roman Religion/Philosophy</a></span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Romanesque Religion/Philosophy</a></span><span class="style1"></span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Celtic Era Religion/Philosophy</a></span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Early Gothic Religion/Philosophy</a></span><span class="style1"></span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Carolingian Religion/Philosophy</a></span><span class="style1"> </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Late Gothic Religion/Philosophy</a></span><span class="style1">REALISM AND NOMINALISMRealism and Nominalism were the two contrasting solutions to the problem of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">universals</a></span><span class="style1">. Realists, among whom </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">John Duns Scotus</a></span><span class="style1"> was the greatest, affirmed the independent existence of universals and argued that they exist outside of and are independent of the mind. Nominalists, among whom </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">William of Ockham</a></span><span class="style1"> was the greatest, held that universals are merely names describing collections of things or objects, e.g., the state is just a collection of individuals or citizens or subjects. Only they, as individuals, are real; the abstract essence of the state does not exist independently. </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Peter Abelard</a></span><span class="style1"> attempted to reconcile the realist and nominalist positions and ended up as a </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Scholastic</a></span><span class="style1"> or Neoaristotelian.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">ULTUREThe culture of the Middle Ages was dominated by one theme: Christianity. Hellenistic culture disappeared with the Roman Empire, surviving only in scattered texts and the persistent impulse among clergymen to rationally explain the revealed truths of their religion. For some centuries after the fall of Rome there was little high culture in Europe beyond the copying of classical texts in monasteries. Around 800 the emperor </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Charlemagne</a></span><span class="style1"> sponsored a brief revival at his court, but the real rebirth of learning only came after 1000, when the growth of trade supported a growing class of artists and a new institution of learning, the university. Europeans relearned techniques of sculpture and painting, and they developed a unique and original style of architecture, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">the Gothic</a></span><span class="style1">. A cultural movement called chivalry which celebrated courage and sensitivity, honor and virtue, developed at the courts of the increasingly comfortable warrior nobility, while scholars in the universities rediscovered the philosophical works and logical techniques of antiquity and began to use them in an attempt to rationalize Christian beliefs, a tradition known as </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">scholasticism</a></span><span class="style1">. This systematic application of reason gradually broadened beyond theology to problems of natural phenomena and human affairs, a trend that spawned the Renaissance and continues in classrooms and laboratories around the world even today. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he vigorous secular role of the papacy further complicated matters, especially once it had approved the creation of the "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Holy Roman Empire</a></span><span class="style1">" based on Germany and Italy. Pope and emperor soon began to compete and engaged in a bitter struggle for control of Italy from 1075 to 1250. The Catholic kingdoms cooperated in a series of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Crusades</a></span><span class="style1"> aimed at retaking the Holy Lands from the Moslems, but their temporary successes there were outweighed by the permanent damage they did to the Byzantine Empire when </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">one expedition</a></span><span class="style1"> decided that it was easier game.As the Middle Ages came to a close, European diplomacy was dominated by a protracted struggle between the English and French monarchies, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">The Hundred Years War</a></span><span class="style1">. The conflict was typically Medieval in that the English king was at once the French king's equal and his chief vassal, holding larger tracts in France than the French monarch himself. But it was also a war between two nations, and thus was a harbinger of things to come.</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">arfare became the specialized occupation of a small class of highly trained warriors, who in exchange for material support from the peasants offered them protection, both through battlefield action and by maintaining as a base a fortress (i.e., castle). This combination of knights and castles dominated warfare for the better part of a millennium, until, at the very end of the Middle Ages, the reappearance of disciplined pike-armed infantry vanquished the knights and the development of cannons brought the walls of the castles tumbling down.FOREIGN RELATIONSAmidst the debris of the Roman Empire the Germanic tribes wandered in search of wealth and territory, fighting each other as well as the vestiges of the Imperial authority. As they settled down, they continued to fight each other bitterly, pausing only to defend against new influxes of invaders. The Frankish king </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Charlemagne</a></span><span class="style1"> briefly united large parts of Western and Central Europe, but his empire did not endure and was followed by a final series of raids and invasions by </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Vikings</a></span><span class="style1"> from the north, Magyars from the east, and Moslem Saracens from the south. Relations between states became ever more confused as feudalism diluted the concept of sovereignty and vassals came to owe competing allegiances to different lords. </span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">he consensual basis of politics crystallized into formal parliaments, or estates, that included not only the great nobles, but also the leading clergymen and, as the commercial economy revived, representatives of the towns as well. The clergy were included because the Church acquired tremendous landholdings, and hence wealth, over the course of the centuries; the towns gained entre because as the commercial economy revived mercenaries, and hence money, became increasingly important for war. By the late middle ages national states were beginning to emerge, ruled by a hereditary monarch in uneasy collaboration with semi-autonomous nobility and towns. (see </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">The Feudal System</a></span><span class="style1">)WARFAREMedieval warfare, and hence medieval society, was sharply distinguished from its classical predecessor by a single device: the stirrup. By enabling a rider to absorb a terrific amount of force and remain in the saddle, the stirrup created a revolution in warfare. Stirrups made the mount into a much more stable platform for horse archers, thus increasing their accuracy and extending their range, and by allowing an armored rider to be fused with the bulk and momentum of his horse, lance-armed cavalry became a shock weapon of unprecedented potency, able to ride down all but the most disciplined infantry. </span></text>
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<text>Often referred as the "Dark Ages", recent scholarship has suggested that the period was not as "dark" as has been portrayed. There was commerce, trade, exchange systems for currency, farming and the sale of surplus goods, and basic survival skills such as weaving, tool making and the making of weapons. Roman laws and institutions were retained as well, exemplified by the Frankish Kings taking the titles and claims of the Roman Empire for themselves. "Early Middle Ages" seems a better term than "Dark Ages" in any case.As Roman bureaucratic administration collapsed, the Germanic kingdoms were not able to replace it. Instead they gradually developed a system in which the king granted his leading nobles control over vast tracts of land (and the serfs residing upon it) and a promise of support in case of attack in return for fealty and military service; the nobles in turn granted control of portions of their land to lesser nobles on the same terms; and so on down to the level of a single manor and an individual knight. This system of mutual obligations worked well, supporting an expensive warrior class outside of a cash economy and mobilizing it for common defense (or offense) as needed, with need defined by a consensus among the participants rather than royal (or imperial) fiat. </text>
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<text><span class="style1">OLITICSUnder the general name "</span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">barbarians</a></span><span class="style1">," Germanic tribes, Huns, Mongols, Goths, Visigoths, Vandals, Celts, Lombards, Burgundians and Anglo-Saxons broke through the borders of the Roman Empire and, over a period of c. 200 years, brought an end to that Empire. Edward Gibbon's </span><span class="style6">Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</span><span class="style1"> was certainly appropriately titled. Rome did not fall in a day, nor even in a century. So impressed with Rome were these invading peoples that they retained names and titles from the Roman Empire even while destroying it. Intermingling of peoples resulted, but the further south invaders went, including North Africa, the less such mixing of peoples took place. As a result of these invasions, small independent districts were created, "autarkies," which were increasingly self-sufficient. No longer was there an organizing force to unify their districts under a single government. Latin lost its primacy as a language, replaced by early French, Spanish and Italian. Art and intellectual life suffered as did education. </span></text>
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<text>Consequently, villages that grew into towns as they profited from the revival of trade eagerly purchased individual freedom for their inhabitants and administrative autonomy for the community as a whole. Within them, a parallel society began to emerge, characterized by the urban class structure of propertyless workers, small artisans and traders, and an upper crust of increasingly wealthy merchants and financiers.The manor, varying in size, was the center of life. As a farm community, both society and economics depended on the manor and manorial system throughout the Middle Ages, from its earliest days. This system, called feudalism, was total throughout society including the Church. Names such as vassals, lords, serfs and freemen identified those who lived within what came to be known as the "feudal contract": mostly verbal, but later written down in the form of charters. A person could be born, live and die entirely within the unit of the manor, which also included a local church, but even the appointment of clergy to serve in the manor church was a decision often made by the lord of the manor, sometimes in conjunction with a local bishop or abbot if there was a monastery near by.</text>
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<text><span class="style1">y 1400 entire regions (e.g., northern Italy and Belgium) were manufacturing for export and were dependent, at least in part, for their sustenance on foodstuffs imported from afar. At this point, the European economy was once again reaching a level comparable to that of the Roman Empire.SOCIETYThe structure of European society evolved in step with the evolution of the economy. As the Roman Empire collapsed, its highly differentiated urban society was replaced by a simpler division between lords and peasants. The lords were predominantly a warrior elite, with only a small admixture of clergy; their power came from their military prowess and their legitimacy depended on their ability to defend their peasants. Most peasants were serfs, subordinate to the jurisdiction of their lord and legally bound to the confines of the estate, a status that was acceptable so long as instability and turmoil threatened; but one that became increasingly irksome as settled conditions returned in the years after 1000. (see </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">The Feudal System</a></span><span class="style1">)</span></text>
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<text>ECONOMYThe collapse of the Roman Empire was accompanied by the steady decline of the commercial economy, although this process was only completed in the seventh century by the rise of Islam and its subsequent disruption of historic patterns of Mediterranean trade. By the eighth century, the European economy was overwhelmingly a subsistence economy, with each locality producing all necessities save, perhaps, weapons. A meager trade in luxuries continued, but through the end of the first millennium most Europeans produced and consumed within the bounds of the estate, or manor, on which they lived (hence the term "manorialism"). After 1000, the European economy began to revive, with increasing connections to the luxury trade from south and east Asia, and, even more important, with increasing intra-European trade, which stimulated not only commerce but manufacturing as well. Within the towns artisanal manufacture flourished, structured by craft guilds, associations of producers which supervised training, regulated the quality of products, restricted the quantity of output to maintain prices, represented the members in town government and provided social welfare services to them. When the guilds proved too restrictive to satisfy the growing demand, entrepreneurs began to organize production by marginal peasants, those who, because of the population pressures on the land, needed to supplement their agricultural incomes. </text>
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<text><span class="style1">OPULATIONFew records exist, but it seems likely that the population of southern and western Europe declined during the last years of the Roman empire, with the collapse of the commercial economy and imperial institutions and the ravages of epidemic disease more than offsetting the influx of invaders. For the early part of the Middle Ages, until after 1000, certainly, Western Europe was a population importer, as waves of intruders from the forests and steppes to the east migrated in. In the first centuries of the second millennium, however, Europeans began to move out, a trickle to the Holy Lands in </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">the Crusades</a></span><span class="style1">, and a much more significant number into the eastern marches beyond the Elbe river. By the mid fourteenth century Europe entered a demographic crisis, with the population exceeding the resources available to it, a crisis only alleviated by the mass mortalities resulting from the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Black Death</a></span><span class="style1">. (It is estimated that of the c.100,000,000 in Western Europe by 1347, the Black Death, which began in 1348, took about 33,000,000, or one third of them.)</span></text>
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<text><span class="style1">EDIEVAL PROFILEGEOGRAPHYThe beginning of the Middle Ages saw the decline of the connections that had grown in antiquity across the belt of civilization that stretched from the Roman Empire to Han China, connections that only gradually revived in the years after 1000 A.D. In the Mediterranean world, the unity achieved under Roman rule was replaced first by a single division between the Eastern, </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Byzantine Empire</a></span><span class="style1"> and the </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Germanic successor states</a></span><span class="style1"> in the West. With the rise of </span><span class="style4"><a href="#" class="group">Islam</a></span><span class="style1"> in the seventh century, the division became tripartite, as the Mediterranean basin from Spain across North Africa to Arabia came under Moslem rule, leaving the Byzantines only Anatolia, the Balkans and Southern Italy. At the end of the Middle Ages this tripartite division was simplified politically as the Moslems conquered most of the Byzantine Empire and the revived Western Europeans took the rest, but culturally the three-way division remained, with the Greek Orthodox areas distinct from both the Catholic West and the Islamic world. </span></text>
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<name>Medieval Intro</name>
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<script>-- CD H A N D L E R S-- Navigate,Essay,-- CD F I E L D S-- CD B U T T O N S-- SlideShow-- « To Macro-Viewon Navigateput script of target into listput line 4 of list into PeriodWhichdelete line 1 to 4 of listget PopMenu (bottom of target+1,left of target+1,0,list)set cursor to 4if it = empty thenvisual zoom output short name of target into targCarddelete last word of targCardgo cd targCardif the result is not empty thenlock screenput targCard into tempanswer "No card exists for:" && targCard with Cancel or Createif it = "Create" thenpush cardgo last cd of bg "Grids™"domenu New Cardset name of this cd to tempput short name of target into bg fld 1unlock screen with visual iris openend ifend ifelseif item 4 of it = "-" or item 4 of it = "" then exit Navigateelseif item 2 of it is "A" thenbeepanswer "Use Submenu to navigate to your topic of interest…"exit navigateend ifif item 2 of it is "Z" or item 2 of it is "X" thenput item 4 of it into targCardvisual zoom open very fastgo cd targCardexit navigateend ifput PeriodWhich&item 4 of it into targCardvisual zoom open very fastgo cd targCardend ifend ifend Navigateon Essayput script of target into listdelete line 1 to 3 of listget PopMenu (bottom of target+1,left of target+1,0,list)set cursor to 4if it=empty thenanswer "Hold the mouse down for a list of essays…"exit essayend ifif item 4 of it = "-" or item 4 of it = "" then exit Essayput item 4 of it into targCardvisual zoom open very fastgo cd targCardend Essay</script>
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